Research Overview

EMDR Therapy

EMDR therapy, grounded in extensive research, has emerged as a pivotal tool in psychological treatment. This page outlines the continually expanding body of scientific studies and clinical trials that validate and refine EMDR's methodologies. Explore the journey of EMDR from experimental therapy to a globally recognized and evidence-based practice.

International Treatment Guidelines

Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Acute Stress Disorder and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines

EMDR given the same status as CBT as an effective treatment for ameliorating symptoms of both acute and chronic PTSD.

Clinical Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in Adults.

EMDR was given a conditional recommendation.

A position paper of the (Israeli) National Council for Mental Health: Guidelines for the assessment and professional intervention with terror victims in the hospital and in the community. Jerusalem, Israel.

EMDR is one of three methods recommended for treatment of terror victims.

Trauma Treatment for Children. http://www.cebc4cw.org.

EMDR and Trauma-focused CBT are considered “Well-Supported by Research Evidence.”

The management of post traumatic stress disorder in adults. A publication of the Clinical Resource Efficiency Support Team of the Northern Ireland Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety, Belfast.

EMDR and CBT were stated to be the treatments of choice.

VA/DoD  Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Post-Traumatic Stress. Washington, DC.http://www.oqp.med.va.gov/cpg/PTSD/PTSD_cpg/frameset.htm

EMDR was one of three therapies given the highest level of evidence.

Multidisciplinary Guideline Anxiety Disorders. Quality Institute Heath Care CBO/Trimbos Intitute. Utrecht, Netherlands.

EMDR and CBT both designated as treatments of choice for PTSD

Psychotherapy: An evaluation of three approaches. French National Institute of Health and Medical Research, Paris, France.

Of the different psychotherapies, EMDR and CBT were stated to be the treatments of choice for trauma victims.

Practice Guidelines http://www.istss.org/treating-trauma/new-istss-prevention-and-treatment-guidelines.aspx.

EMDR therapy was given a strong recommendation as an effective and empirically supported treatment for PTSD in children, adolescents and adults.

The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) is an agency of the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS).

This national registry (NREPP) cites EMDR as evidence-based practice for treatment of PTSD, anxiety and depression symptoms.  Their review of the evidence also indicated that EMDR leads to an improvement in mental health functioning.

Regional treatment recommendation for anxiety  disorders.  Stockholm: Medical Program Committee/Stockholm City Council, Sweden.

Of all psychotherapies CBT and EMDR are recommended as treatments of choice for PTSD.

http://www.therapyadvisor.com

An NIMH sponsored website listing empirically supported methods for a variety of disorders.  EMDR is one of three treatments listed for PTSD.

Treatment choice in psychological therapies and counselling evidence based clinical practice guideline. London, England.

Best evidence of efficacy was reported for EMDR, exposure, and stress inoculation.

Guidelines for the management of conditions that are specifically related to stress. Geneva, WHO.

Trauma-focused CBT and EMDR are the only psychotherapies recommended for children, adolescents and adults with PTSD.  “Like CBT with a trauma focus, EMDR therapy aims to reduce subjective distress and strengthen adaptive cognitions related to the traumatic event.  Unlike CBT with a trauma focus, EMDR does not involve (a) detailed descriptions of the event, (b) direct challenging of beliefs, (c) extended exposure, or (d) homework.” (p. 1)

Meta-Analyses

EMDR has been compared to numerous exposure therapy protocols, with and without CT techniques. It should be noted that exposure therapy uses one to two hours of daily homework and EMDR uses none.  The most recent meta-analyses are listed here.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) for the treatment of psychosis: a systematic review. [Desensibilización y reprocesamiento por movimientos oculares (EMDR) para el tratamiento de la psicosis: Una revisión sistemática] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1)

EMDR emerges as a viable and well-tolerated intervention for individuals with psychosis.

Evidence of the Efficacy of EMDR With Children and Adolescents in Individual Psychotherapy: A Review of the Research Published in Peer-Reviewed Journals. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, Suppl. Special Issue on the 20th Anniversary of EMDR, 3(4), 232-247.

To effectively address PTSD symptoms in children and adolescents, it is crucial to tailor the efficacy of EMDR treatment specifically for this population. This article provides evidence documenting that a significant body of research supports the use of EMDR with children, indicating promising results and a growing trend towards establishing it as an evidence-based practice.

Psychological treatments for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 190(2), 97-104.

Based on a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, TF-CBT and EMDR were found to outperform stress management and other therapies.

Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults (Review). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003388.pub4

Research indicates that CBT and EMDR therapy are superior to all other treatments.

A multidimensional meta-analysis of psychotherapy for PTSD.  American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 214-227.

EMDR is equivalent to exposure and other cognitive behavioral treatments and all “are highly efficacious in reducing PTSD symptoms.

Psychosocial interventions for children and adolescents after man-made and natural disasters: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 47(11), 1893-1905.

Several psychosocial treatments have been identified as effective for child and adolescent survivors of disasters. Among these are CBT, EMDR, KIDNET, and classroom-based interventions, all of which can be equally recommended.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. [Desensibilización y reprocesamiento por movimientos oculares para la depresión: una revisión sistemñtica y meta-análisis] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1).

The results of the review indicate that EMDR shows promise as an effective treatment option for alleviating symptoms of depression, demonstrating comparable effects to other active treatments.

Efficacy of eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing for patients with posttraumatic-stress disorder: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PloS one9(8), e103676.

[A] quantitative meta-analysis on the findings of 26 randomized controlled trials of EMDR therapy for PTSD published between 1991 and 2013 . . . confirmed that EMDR therapy significantly reduces the symptoms of PTSD, depression, anxiety, and subjective distress in PTSD patients.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing in Child and Adolescent Psychology: a Narrative Review. Current Treatment Options in Psychiatry, 8(3), 95-109.

EMDR therapy is a structured psychotherapeutic approach that enables the treatment of various psychopathologies and difficulties associated with both traumatic events and emotionally challenging experiences in children and adolescents. However, further research is needed to enhance its validity and effectiveness.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): A meta-analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 305-316.

EMDR is equivalent to exposure and other cognitive behavioral treatments. It should be noted that exposure therapy uses one to two hours of daily homework and EMDR uses none.

EMDR and the Anxiety Disorders: Exploring the Current Status. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 3(3), 133-140.

The findings indicate that, compared to no-treatment control conditions or nonspecific interventions, EMDR generally exhibits greater effectiveness. However, it is not as effective as existing evidence-based interventions (such as exposure-based therapies). Nevertheless, due to the use of incomplete protocols and limited treatment courses in these studies, the question regarding the relative efficacy of EMDR for anxiety disorders remains largely unresolved.

The Effectiveness of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing in the Treatment of Traumatized Children and Youth. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 6(1), 16-26.

The effectiveness of EMDR treatment has been demonstrated in over 15 studies. While there is a substantial body of research assessing the efficacy of EMDR for Type I traumas, providing strong evidence, there is a limited number of studies specifically examining EMDR treatment for Type II traumas.

Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Trauma: A Review of Randomized Controlled Trials with Children and Adolescents: C & A. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 29(5), 409-425.

Based on a meta-analysis of five randomized controlled trials, EMDR emerges as a promising approach for treating children and adolescents. However, when compared to other trauma-focused interventions, the results are less favorable.

Cognitive behaviour therapy versus eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for post-traumatic disorder–is it all in the homework then?. Revue Européenne de Psychologie Appliquée/European Review of Applied Psychology, 62(4), 253-260.

There were no differences between EMDR and TFCBT on measures of PTSD. However, there was a significant advantage for EMDR over TFCBT in reducing depression . .  The analysis also indicated a difference in the prescribed homework between the treatments. . . EMDR is efficacious for PTSD and trauma patients with or without co-morbid depression and requires little to no between session tasks to ensure positive outcomes.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing versus Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Treating Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(24), 16836. 

EMDR demonstrated superior effectiveness in reducing anxiety in children and adolescents compared to cognitive behavior therapy, with a standardized mean difference (95% CI) of -3.99 (-5.47 to -2.52, p < 0.001).

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy versus Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing in Patients with Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials. Cureus, 10(9)

In a meta-analysis of 11 studies involving 547 participants, it was found that EMDR outperforms CBT in reducing post-traumatic symptoms. Additionally, EMDR was more effective than CBT in reducing anxiety. However, no significant difference was observed between CBT and EMDR in reducing depression.

A meta-analysis of the contribution of eye movements in processing emotional memories. Journal of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 44, 231-239.

The effect size for the additive effect of eye movements in EMDR treatment studies was moderate and significant (Cohen’s d = 0.41). For the second group of laboratory studies the effect size was large and significant (d = 0.74).

Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. [Terapias psicológicas para el trastorno de estrés postraumático en adultos: revisión sistemática y metaanálisis] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1)

The recent surge in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating psychological therapies for PTSD has led to a stronger endorsement of CBT-T and EMDR as the preferred first-line treatments.

The effectiveness of EMDR with individuals experiencing substance use disorder: A meta-analysis. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 17(1).

Regarding its impact on outcomes related to Substance Use Disorder (SUD), the meta-analysis provided evidence that EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing) displayed efficacy (n = 7, d = .580, 95% CI [.209, .951], p = .002). Specifically, EMDR was effective in enhancing SUD treatment engagement and addressing the severity of the disorder. However, its effectiveness in reducing cravings was not as pronounced. Additionally, EMDR demonstrated effectiveness in reducing co-occurring symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression.

The relationship between efficacy and methodology in studies investigating EMDR treatment of PTSD. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 23-41.

A comprehensive meta-analysis reported the more rigorous the study, the larger the effect.

Eye Movement Desensitisation Treatment Utilises the Positive Visceral Element of the Investigatory Reflex to Inhibit the Memories of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Theoretical Analysis. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 169(5), 571-579.

EMDR achieves rapid effectiveness through a clinical approach rooted in Pavlovian conditioning. It involves pairing the positive visceral element of the investigatory reflex with clinically-induced distressing memories to alleviate their negative emotional impact.

The Effectiveness of EMDR in Reducing Psychological Distress in Survivors of Natural Disasters: A Review. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 8(3), 157-170.

The results of this meta-analysis demonstrate that EMDR interventions yielded clinically significant reductions in PTSD symptoms. Furthermore, EMDR proves to be a cost-effective intervention and valuable resource.

Efficacy of EMDR in children: A meta – analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 599-606.

Results indicate efficacy of EMDR when effect sizes are based on comparisons between EMDR and non-established trauma treatment or no-treatment control groups, and incremental efficacy when effect sizes are based on comparisons between EMDR and established (CBT) trauma treatment.

Comparing the efficacy of EMDR and trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of PTSD: a meta-analytic study. Psychological Medicine, 36, 1515-1522.

Results suggest that in the treatment of PTSD, both therapy methods tend to be equally efficacious.

Psychophysiological Studies of EMDR. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, Suppl. Special Issue on Possible EMDR Mechanisms of Action, 2(4), 282-288.

This study examines the impact of eye movements in genuine EMDR sessions targeting chronic PTSD among refugees who have experienced war and torture. It situates these research findings within the broader context of existing literature. The findings indicate clear physiological effects of eye movements, including de-arousal manifested by increased finger temperature and shifts in the balance between the parasympathetic and sympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system.

EMDR in the Treatment of Medically Unexplained Symptoms: A Systematic Review. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, Suppl.Special Issue on the 20th Anniversary of EMDR, 3(4), 248-263.

The initial findings indicate that EMDR could potentially serve as an effective treatment for medically unexplained symptoms (MUS) and somatoform disorders, especially when they are linked to trauma. Among these, the most promising results to date have been observed in the context of phantom limb pain.

Self-administered EMDR therapy: potential solution for expanding the availability of psychotherapy for PTSD or unregulated recipe for disaster? BJPsych Open, 6(6)

A solitary, limited-scale primary research study examining self-administered EMDR therapy was discovered. The findings revealed notable reductions in symptoms of PTSD, depression, anxiety, distress, and disability from pre-treatment to a 3-month follow-up period. Importantly, no significant adverse events were reported.

Meta-analysis of the efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 74, e541-550. doi: 10.4088/JCP.12r08225

CBT and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing were the most often-studied types of psychotherapy. Both were effective.

Efficacy of Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing for Patients with Posttraumatic-Stress Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. PLoS One, 9(8)

A meta-analysis encompassing 26 randomized controlled trials investigating the effects of EMDR therapy on PTSD revealed significant reductions in symptoms of PTSD, depression, anxiety, and subjective distress among individuals with PTSD.

Using Neurobiological Measures to Predict and Assess Treatment Outcome of Psychotherapy in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Systematic Review. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 82(3), 142-51.

A comprehensive analysis of 23 publications, comprising 16 distinct trials, was conducted to compare the effectiveness of TF-CBT and EMDR in treating posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The study revealed that active treatment resulted in reduced physiological reactivity, but this effect was not specific to EMDR. Furthermore, a diminished volume of gray matter in the amygdala was found to be predictive of a poor response to EMDR.

Randomized Clinical Trials

'EMDR treatment for children with PTSD: Results of a randomized controlled trial': Corrigendum. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 71(4), 324.

In comparison to a waiting list control group, children receiving treatment in the EMDR group demonstrated significantly lower post-treatment scores for symptoms of PTSD. Notably, the most substantial difference observed between the groups over time was the improvement in re-experiencing symptoms.

Efficacy of “eye movement desensitization and reprocessing” in reducing anxiety and unpleasant feelings due to earthquake experience. Psychological Research, 9 (3-4), 104-117.

EMDR is effective in reducing earthquake anxiety and negative emotions (e.g. PTSD, grief, fear, intrusive thoughts, depression, etc) resulting from earthquake experience. Furthermore, results show that, improvement due to EMDR was maintained at a one month follow up.

EMDR for Syrian refugees with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: results of a pilot randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6

A randomized controlled trial conducted with Syrian refugees demonstrated that EMDR led to significantly lower scores in trauma and depression at the posttreatment stage.

The efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for post-traumatic stress disorder and depression among Syrian refugees: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Psychological medicine, 46(12), 2583-2593.

All participants met the criteria for PTSD on assessment and demonstrated a significant reduction of PTSD and depression symptoms at post-treatment as well as at the 5-week follow-up. At follow-up, 49% were no longer diagnosed with PTSD.

EMDR treatment for children with PTSD: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Nord J Psychiatry, 61, 349-54.

Thirty-three 6-16-year-old children with a DSM-IV diagnosis of PTSD were randomly assigned to eight weekly EMDR sessions or the WLC group. EMDR was found to be an effective treatment in children with PTSD from various sources and who were suffering from a variety of co-morbid conditions.

Applying EMDR on children with PTSD. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 17(3), 127-32.

A completion rate of only 63.6% was observed in the sample, with participants undergoing all eight EMDR sessions. The average treatment effect size on various scales, including total PTSS scores, PTSD-related, PTSD-non-related, re-experiencing, avoidance, and hyperarousal, was found to be 0.16, 0.22, 0.06, 0.40, 0.21, and -0.01, respectively. These results indicate that EMDR treatment primarily contributed to the improvement of re-experiencing symptoms.

REM desensitization as a new therapeutic method for posttraumatic stress dis- order: a randomized controlled trial. Acta Med Indones. 47(2):111–9.

A sleep based musical intervention was compared to a version of EMD, based upon the Shapiro (1989) article.   … intrusive thoughts were significantly more likely to improve with REM Desensitization versus EMDR (P=0.03), while depression was more responsive to EMDR (p=0.03).

The Efficacy of Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing in Resolving the Trauma Caused by the Road Accidents in the Sultanate of Oman. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 39(3), 146-158.

The effectiveness of EMDR in reducing overall PTSD scale was demonstrated in both post-testing and follow-up measurements, with positive outcomes observed for all participants.

EMDR for survivors of life-threatening cardiac events: Results of a pilot study. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 5, 2-13.

Forty-two patients undergoing cardiac rehabilitation  . . . were randomized to a 4-week treatment of EMDR or imaginal exposure (IE).  EMDR was effective in reducing PTSD, depressive, and anxiety symptoms and performed significantly better than IE for all variables. Because the standardized IE procedures used were those employed in-session during [prolonged exposure]  the results are also instructive regarding the relative efficacy of both treatments without the addition of homework.

The OptiMUM-study: EMDR therapy in pregnant women with posttraumatic stress disorder after previous childbirth and pregnant women with fear of childbirth: design of a multicentre randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(1)

This study represents the initial randomized controlled trial examining the efficacy of EMDR treatment for pregnant women experiencing PTSD following childbirth or exhibiting pathological fear of childbirth.

EMDR and CBT for cancer patients: Comparative study of effects on PTSD, anxiety, and depression. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 5, 2-13.

This randomized pilot study reported that after eight sessions of treatment, EMDR therapy was superior to a variety of CBT techniques. “Almost all the patients (20 out of 21, 95.2%) did not have PTSD after the EMDR treatment.

Treating post-traumatic stress disorder in patients with multiple sclerosis: A randomized controlled trial comparing the efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing and relaxation therapy. Frontiers in Psychology, 7.

In the EMDR condition, measurements at posttest and follow-up revealed 85% and 100% PTSD remission, respectively.

Neurobiological features and response to eye movement desensitization and reprocessing treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with breast cancer. [乳腺癌患者创伤后应激障碍的神经生物学特征及其对眼动脱敏和再加工疗法的反应] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1)

Following the completion of treatment, all patients who received EMDR therapy no longer met the criteria for PTSD, whereas patients who received treatment as usual (TAU) maintained their diagnosis. Additionally, a notable reduction in depressive symptoms was observed exclusively in the EMDR group, while anxiety levels remained stable across all patients. The EEG results further supported these findings, revealing significant differences in the delta and theta bands in the left angular and right fusiform gyri solely within the EMDR group.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): Treatment for combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 3-24.

Twelve sessions of EMDR eliminated post-traumatic stress disorder in 77.7% of the multiply traumatized combat veterans studied.  There was 100% retention in the EMDR condition. Effects were maintained at follow-up.  This is the only randomized study to provide a full course of treatment with combat veterans.  Other studies (e.g., Boudewyns/Devilly/Jensen/Pitman et al./Macklin et al.) evaluated treatment of only one or two memories, which, according to the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies Practice Guidelines (2000), is inappropriate for multiple-trauma survivors. The VA/DoD Practice Guideline (2004) also indicates these studies (often with only two sessions) offered insufficient treatment doses for veterans.  EMDR therapy is given the strongest level of recommendation in the VA/DoD Practice Guideline (2004, 2010, 2017).

EMDR and CBT for cancer patients: Comparative study of effects on PTSD, anxiety, and depression. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 7(3), 134–143.

In terms of reducing scores on the IES-R and the CAPS intrusive symptom subscale, EMDR exhibited a significantly greater effectiveness compared to CBT. However, both treatment groups demonstrated equal improvements in anxiety and depression. Additionally, EMDR demonstrated consistent efficacy during both active cancer treatment and in the follow-up period of the disease.

Brief-treatment for elementary school children with disaster-related PTSD: A field study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 99-112.

EMDR was found to be an effective treatment for children with disaster-related PTSD who had not responded to another intervention.  This is the first controlled study for disaster-related PTSD, and the first controlled study examining the treatment of children with PTSD.

Effectiveness of time-limited eye movement desensitization reprocessing therapy for parents of children with a rare life-limiting illness: a randomized clinical trial. Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases, 17, 1-10.

For parents of children with rare progressive life-limiting illnesses, EMDR treatment led to a notable decrease in total PTSD symptoms as well as comorbid psychological symptoms, distress, and parenting stress.

Comparison of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing and Biofeedback/Stress Inoculation Training in Treating Test Anxiety. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 6(2), 62-72.

A two-way analysis of variance with repeated measures was employed for statistical analysis, revealing significant interactions between time (pre-post) and treatment conditions across all measures, except for the RBI. Post hoc Newman-Keuls analyses were conducted on the change scores, demonstrating that both EMDR and B/SIT resulted in significant reductions in test anxiety. Overall, EMDR exhibited superior performance compared to B/SIT.

Participant experiences of Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing vs. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for grief: similarities and differences. [标题:参与者体验治疗哀痛的眼动脱敏与再加工和认知行为疗法:相似和不同点] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8

Participants reported common experiences in both therapies, including increased insight, a positive emotional shift, heightened activity, enhanced self-confidence, and a healthier psychological connection with the deceased. Specifically, participants who completed EMDR treatment described a reduction in clarity and a sense of emotional distance from distressing memories subsequent to the intervention.

EMDR treatment of distressful experiences that fail to meet the criteria for PTSD.  Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 2, 2-14.

EMDR treatment of disturbing life events (small “t” trauma) was compared to active listening, and wait list. EMDR produced significantly lower scores on the Impact of Event Scale (mean reduced from “moderate” to “subclinical”) and a significantly smaller increase on the STAI after memory recall.

Prolonged exposure and EMDR for PTSD v. a PTSD waiting-list condition: effects on symptoms of psychosis, depression and social functioning in patients with chronic psychotic disorders. Psychological medicine, 1-11.

In patients with chronic psychotic disorders PE and EMDR not only reduced PTSD symptoms, but also paranoid thoughts. Importantly, in PE and EMDR more patients accomplished the status of their psychotic disorder in remission.

A randomised comparison of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) in disaster exposed children. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 2: 5694 - DOI: 10.3402/ejpt.v2i0.5694.

Children (n=52, aged 4-18) were randomly allocated to either CBT (n=26) or EMDR (n=26) in a disaster mental health after-care setting after an explosion of a fireworks factory. . . Both treatment approaches produced significant reductions on all measures and results were maintained at follow-up. Treatment gains of EMDR were reached in fewer sessions.

A randomised comparison of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) in disaster-exposed children, European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 2:1

Both treatment approaches yielded noteworthy decreases across all measurements, with sustained results observed during the follow-up period. EMDR achieved treatment benefits in a shorter timeframe compared to the standardized CBT intervention. Both standardized CBT and EMDR interventions demonstrated significant enhancements in the functioning of children affected by disasters.

Comparison of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy, cognitive behavioral writing therapy, and wait-list in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder following single-incident trauma: a multicenter randomized clinical trial. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines58(11), 1219–1228.

EMDR and CBWT are concise therapeutic approaches that focus on trauma and have shown comparable rates of remission for PTSD, as well as reductions in the severity of PTSD symptoms and associated challenges in children and adolescents seeking treatment for PTSD related to a single traumatic event. However, additional trials investigating the effectiveness of both treatments for PTSD associated with multiple traumas are needed.

Predictors and moderators of treatment outcome for single incident paediatric PTSD: a multi-centre randomized clinical trial. [Predictores y moderadores del resultado del tratamiento para el tept pediátrico de incidente único: un ensayo clínico aleatorizado multicéntrico] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1)

After completing the treatment and at the 3-month follow-up, it was observed that youth who experienced sexual abuse as their index trauma, exhibited severe symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, depression, more comorbid disorders, negative posttraumatic beliefs, and had a parent with more severe psychopathology, had poorer outcomes in both treatment approaches. Furthermore, for children who reported more severe PTSD symptoms initially, EMDR was found to be more effective than CBWT. Conversely, for children and parents with a less severe profile, CBWT was more effective compared to EMDR.

Comparison of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) and Duloxetine Treatment Outcomes in Women Patients with Somatic Symptom Disorder. Sleep and Hypnosis (Online), 19(3), 70-77.

After 6 weeks of treatment, the EMDR group demonstrated notable progress compared to their baseline, surpassing the improvement seen in the duloxetine group. Based on these findings, we can conclude that EMDR shows great promise as a therapy and should be regarded as one of the primary interventions for the treatment of SSD (Somatic Symptom Disorder).

The relative efficacy and treatment distress of EMDR and a cognitive behavioral trauma treatment protocol in the amelioration of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13, 131–157.

EMDR was compared to Trauma Treatment Protocol (composed of prolonged imaginal exposure, in vivo exposure, stress inoculation training and additional cognitive restructuring procedures) developed by the first author (and primary research therapist). Subjects were assigned in nonrandom blocks to eight treatment sessions. TTP was reported significantly more effective.

 Trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy or eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: What works in children with posttraumatic stress symptoms? A randomized controlled trial. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 227-236.

A mixed sample of full and partial PTSD was evaluated. [B]oth treatments are effective in children with PTSS in an outpatient setting. Results on both child and parent measures support this conclusion.

The effectiveness of EMDR with adult female survivors of childhood sexual abuse.  Social Work Research23, 103-116.

EMDR treatment resulted in lower scores (fewer clinical symptoms) on all four of the outcome measures at the three-month follow-up, compared to those in the routine treatment condition.  The EMDR group also improved on all standardized measures at 18 months follow up (Edmond & Rubin, 2004, Journal of Child Sexual Abuse).

Sexual abuse survivors’ perceptions of the effectiveness of EMDR and eclectic therapy: A mixed-methods study. Research on Social Work Practice, 14, 259-272.

Combination of qualitative and quantitative analyses of treatment outcomes with important implications for future rigorous research. Survivors’ narratives indicate that EMDR produces greater trauma resolution, while within eclectic therapy, survivors more highly value their relationship with their therapist, through whom they learn effective coping strategies.

Augmentation of EMDR with multifocal transcranial current stimulation (MtCS) in the treatment of fibromyalgia: study protocol of a double-blind randomized controlled exploratory and pragmatic trial. Trials, 22(1)

In a double-blind randomized controlled trial, the effectiveness of EMDR in reducing pain symptoms in patients with fibromyalgia (FM) was examined. The study also investigated whether the addition of multifocal transcranial current stimulation could enhance the effects of EMDR.

The Efficacy of EMDR in the Treatment of Depression. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 10(2), 59-69.

With a 95% confidence interval, the findings of this study demonstrate the effectiveness of EMDR in treating depressive and trauma symptoms, as well as improving the participants' quality of life. Notably, a generalization effect was observed for depressogenic cognitions, as the number and intensity of negative beliefs significantly decreased even for beliefs that were not specifically addressed in the therapy. Furthermore, a follow-up interview conducted three months later confirmed the sustained nature of these positive results among the EMDR participants.

Emergency room intervention to prevent post concussion-like symptoms and post-traumatic stress disorder. A pilot randomized controlled study of a brief eye movement desensitization and reprocessing intervention versus reassurance or usual care. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 103. 229-236.

One hundred and thirty patients with a high risk of PCLS were randomized =. . . In the EMDR, reassurance and control groups, proportions of patients with PCLS at three months were 18%, 37% and 65% and those with PTSD were 3%, 16% and 19% respectively.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in patients with a personality disorder. [Desensibilización y reprocesamiento por movimiento ocular (EMDR) en pacientes con un trastorno de la personalidad.] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1)

EMDR therapy demonstrated noteworthy improvements with moderate to substantial effect sizes for the primary outcomes following treatment. These findings indicate the potential benefits of EMDR therapy in addressing patients with personality disorders.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing ( EMDR ) therapy in the treatment of depression: a matched pairs study in an inpatient setting. Brain and Behavior, 5(6)

The EMDR group exhibited a more pronounced decrease in depressive symptoms, as indicated by the SCL-90-R depression subscale. This disparity remained significant even after accounting for the duration of treatment. During a follow-up period exceeding 1 year, the EMDR group reported fewer depression-related issues and experienced fewer relapses compared to the control group.

Postpartum Early EMDR therapy Intervention (PERCEIVE) study for women after a traumatic birth experience: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials, 22(1)

This study represents the first investigation into the safety and efficacy of early EMDR therapy in mitigating or preventing PTSD symptoms in women who have undergone traumatic childbirth experiences. The findings of this study have the potential to establish a benchmark for screening women for traumatic postpartum experiences, enabling timely referral to appropriate treatment facilities in the early stages following delivery.

Trauma-focused EMDR for Personality disorders among Outpatients (TEMPO): study protocol for a multi-centre, single-blind, randomized controlled trial. Trials, 23(1)

A single-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of trauma-focused treatment utilizing EMDR therapy in individuals diagnosed with a personality disorder.

On treatment with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder in public transportation workers: A randomized controlled study.  Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 61, 54-61.

Employees who had experienced “person-under-train accident or had been assaulted at work were recruited.” Six sessions of EMDR resulted in remission of PTSD in 67% compared to 11% in the wait list control.  Significant effects were documented in Global Assessment of Function (GAF) and Hamilton Depression (HAM-D) score.

Treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Outcome is stable in 35-month follow-up.  Psychiatry Research. 159, 101-108.

Comparison of two treatments for traumatic stress: A community-based study of EMDR and prolonged exposure. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 113-128.

Both EMDR and prolonged exposure produced a significant reduction in PTSD and depression symptoms. This is the only research comparing EMDR and exposure therapy that equalized homework.  The study found that 70% of EMDR participants achieved a good outcome in three active treatment sessions, compared to 29% of persons in the prolonged exposure condition.  EMDR also had fewer dropouts.

A comparison of CBT and EMDR for sexually abused Iranian girls. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 11, 358-368.

Both EMDR and CBT produced significant reduction in PTSD and behavior problems.  EMDR was significantly more efficient, using approximately half the number of sessions to achieve results.

Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing in Child Victims of Domestic Violence. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, 14(1), 67-75.

Both CBT and EMDR have been shown to be effective interventions in improving the psychological outcomes of victims of domestic violence across the measured variables (p = 0.001).

Efficacy of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing on the Quality of Life in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 13, 11-17.

The post-treatment effect size for the EMDR condition was 2.11, with a confidence interval of 1.3 to 2.7. Patients diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) experienced significant improvement in their quality of life (QOL) after completing eight sessions of EMDR.

EMDR Individual Protocol for Paraprofessional Use: A Randomized Controlled Trial With First Responders. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 7(2), 55-64.

A total of 39 traumatized first responders on active duty were randomly assigned to two treatment conditions: EMDR-PROPARA and supportive counseling. Each treatment consisted of two 90-minute sessions. The group receiving EMDR-PROPARA treatment demonstrated immediate benefits following the treatment, whereas the group receiving supportive counseling showed a non-significant improvement after treatment.

The EMDR protocol for recent critical incidents: Application in a disaster mental health continuum of care context. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 5, 82-94.

Participants were treated two weeks following a 7.2 earthquake in Mexico. One session of EMDR-PRECI produced significant improvement on symptoms of posttraumatic stress for both the immediate-treatment and waitlist/delayed treatment groups, with results maintained at 12-week follow-up, even though frightening aftershocks continued to occur frequently.

EMDR protocol for recent critical incidents: A randomized controlled trial in a technological disaster context. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research9, 166–173.

Evaluation of co-workers 10 days after they witnessed seven people killed in an explosion revealed a mean of 22 on the SPRINT, indicating severe PTSD symptoms. After two consecutive-day 60-minute EMDR sessions the mean SPRINT scores for immediate and delayed treatment groups declined to equally low levels on both posttest and follow-up.

Randomized Controlled Trial on the Provision of the EMDR Integrative Group Treatment Protocol Adapted for Ongoing Traumatic Stress to Female Patients with Cancer-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 12(3), 94-104.

Data analysis by repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the EMDR-IGTP-OTS was effective in significantly reducing symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression, with symptoms maintained at 90-day follow-up and with large effect sizes (e.g., d = 1.80).

A controlled comparison of the effectiveness and efficiency of two psychological therapies for posttraumatic stress disorder: Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing vs. Emotional Freedom Techniques, J Nerv Ment Dis199:372–378.

Regarding clinical significant changes, a slightly higher proportion of patients in the EMDR group produced substantial clinical changes compared with the EFT group.

Imagery rescripting and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing as treatment for adults with post-traumatic stress disorder from childhood trauma: randomised clinical trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 217(5), 609-615.

Using a generalized linear mixed model of repeated measures, it was found that observer-rated post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms significantly decreased for both ImRs (d = 1.72) and EMDR (d = 1.73) at the 8-week post-treatment assessment. However, no significant differences between the two treatments were observed on any standardized measure at post-treatment and follow-up.

A wait-list controlled pilot study of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) for children with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms from motor vehicle accidents. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 15, 5-25.

An effect for EMDR was identified on primary outcome and process measures including the Child Post-Traumatic Stress – Reaction Index, clinician rated diagnostic criteria for PTSD, Subjective Units of Disturbance and Validity of Cognition scales. All participants initially met two or more PTSD criteria. After EMDR treatment, this decreased to 25% in the EMDR group but remained at 100% in the wait-list group.

Effectiveness of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing in German Armed Forces Soldiers With Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Under Routine Inpatient Care Conditions. Military Medicine, 182(5), E1672-E1680.

EMDR therapy has demonstrated effectiveness in reducing symptoms of PTSD and depression. However, in the military context, it is important to supplement EMDR with treatment options that specifically target the underlying conditions that contribute to the disorders.

Amygdala volumetric change following psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience published online.

Comparison of EMDR and PE  “Both groups showed significant improvements in PTSD symptoms. Left amygdala mean volume increased significantly following EMDR treatment only.

Treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: A comparison of stress inoculation training with prolonged exposure and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 1071-1089.

Both EMDR and stress inoculation therapy plus prolonged exposure (SITPE) produced significant improvement, with EMDR achieving greater improvement on PTSD intrusive symptoms. Participants in the EMDR condition showed greater gains at three-month follow-up.  EMDR required three hours of homework compared to 28 hours for SITPE.

Treating posttraumatic stress disorder in substance use disorder patients with co-occurring posttraumatic stress disorder: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial to compare the effectiveness of different types and timings of treatment. BMC Psychiatry, 21, 1-15.

This pioneering study compares the effects of PE, EMDR, and ImRs in a single study, while also examining simultaneous and sequential treatment approaches for individuals with co-occurring SUD and PTSD. The findings from this study will enhance our understanding of the effectiveness of various treatment strategies for PTSD and SUD, leading to improved treatment outcomes.

Controlled study of treatment of PTSD using EMDR in an HMO setting.  Psychotherapy, 34, 307-315

Funded by Kaiser Permanente. Results show that 100% of single-trauma and 77% of multiple-trauma survivors were no longer diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder after six 50-minute sessions.

Three- and 6-month follow-up of EMDR treatment of PTSD in an HMO setting.  International Journal of Stress Management, 11, 195-208.

Funded by Kaiser Permanente, follow-up evaluation indicates that a relatively small number of EMDR sessions result in substantial benefits that are maintained over time.

Treating complicated grief and posttraumatic stress in homicidally bereaved individuals: A randomized controlled trial. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 25(4), 497-508.

Based on the available evidence, it can be inferred that both EMDR and CBT show promise as treatments for individuals who have experienced the loss of a loved one due to homicide. This holds true for both men and women, irrespective of the duration since the loss occurred.

Patients' experiences of cognitive behavioural therapy and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing as treatments for obsessive‐compulsive disorder. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 18(3), 251-261.

Patients' narratives revealed a notable emphasis on common process factors, although it is conceivable that these factors intersect with more targeted mechanisms of change, such as desensitization.

EMDR for children with medically related subthreshold PTSD: short-term effects on PTSD, blood-injection-injury phobia, depression and sleep. [EMDR para niños con TEPT subumbral médicamente relacionado: efectos a corto plazo en TEPT, belonefobia, depresión y sueño] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1)

Children who underwent EMDR treatment demonstrated notable enhancements in blood-injection-injury phobia, depression, and child-reported sleep problems. However, there was no discernible superiority of EMDR over the control group in reducing PTSD symptoms.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in children and adolescents with subthreshold PTSD after medically related trauma: design of a randomized controlled trial. [Desensibilización y reprocesamiento por movimientos oculares (EMDR) en niños y adolescentes con TEPT subumbral después de un trauma médico: diseño de un ensayo controlado aleatorizado] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(1)

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of EMDR in reducing PTSD symptoms that arise following hospitalization or medical treatment. It is the first randomized controlled trial to specifically examine the efficacy of EMDR in decreasing subthreshold PTSD symptoms among children and adolescents. The findings of this study offer crucial insights for psychologists who are considering the application of EMDR in pediatric patients.

Early intervention with eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy to reduce the severity of posttraumatic stress symptoms in recent rape victims: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. [La intervención temprana con la terapia de desensibilización y reprocesamiento por movimiento ocular (EMDR) para la reducción de la severidad de los síntomas de estrés postraumáticos en víctimas recientes de una violación: el protocolo de un ensayo controlado aleatorizado] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1)

The findings from this randomized controlled trial have the potential to enhance the dissemination and application of evidence-based preventive treatments, such as EMDR, for individuals experiencing PTSD following incidents of rape.

 Early intervention with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy to reduce the severity of post-traumatic stress symptoms in recent rape victims: a randomized controlled trial. [Intervención temprana con Terapia de Desensibilización y Reprocesamiento por Movimiento Ocular (EMDR) para reducir la gravedad de los síntomas de estrés postraumático en víctimas de violación reciente: Un ensayo controlado aleatorizado] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1)

Significant improvements were observed within both the EMDR condition (effect size ranging from d = 0.89 to 1.57) and the control condition (effect size ranging from d = 0.79 to 1.54), indicating that both treatments were effective. However, no significant differences were found between EMDR and watchful waiting in reducing symptoms of PTSD, general psychopathology, depression, sexual dysfunction, and feelings of guilt and shame. On the other hand, EMDR showed greater effectiveness in reducing anxiety and dissociative symptoms, although this effect diminished over time.

Psychological Intervention in Women Victims of Childhood Sexual Abuse: An Open Study—Protocol of a Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial Comparing EMDR Psychotherapy and Trauma-Based Cognitive Therapy. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(12), 7468.

In a randomized controlled trial, the effectiveness of EMDR psychotherapy and trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy was compared in women who had experienced sexual abuse in the past. Both forms of psychotherapy showed significant reductions in symptoms of PTSD and dissociation, as well as improvements in behavioral problems, anger, depression, anxiety, emotion regulation strategies, and self-esteem.

Comparing the effect of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) with guided imagery on pain severity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Pain Research, 11, 2107-2113.

A notable distinction was found in the average pain scores between the EMDR and guided imagery groups, as well as between each intervention group and the control group (P=0.001). Both guided imagery and EMDR demonstrated the ability to alleviate pain in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis, although the reduction in pain was more pronounced with EMDR compared to guided imagery.

Brief eclectic psychotherapy v. eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing therapy in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: Randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry, 200, 224-231.

A comparison of “the efficacy and response pattern of a trauma-focused CBT modality, brief eclectic psychotherapy for PTSD with EMDR . Although both treatments are effective, EMDR results in a faster recovery compared with the more gradual improvement with brief eclectic psychotherapy.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy in subsyndromal bipolar patients with a history of traumatic events: A randomized, controlled pilot-study. Psychiatry Research, 219, 122-128.

Although preliminary, our findings support the utility of this treatment approach and suggest that Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing therapy could be a promising and safe therapeutic strategy to reduce trauma symptoms and stabilize mood in traumatized bipolar patients with subsyndromal symptoms.

Randomized Controlled Trial on the EMDR Integrative Group Treatment Protocol for Ongoing Traumatic Stress with Adolescents and Young Adults Patients with Cancer. American Journal of Applied Psychology. Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 50-56.

Data analysis by repeated measures ANOVA showed that the EMDR-IGTP-OTS was effective in significantly reducing symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression, with symptoms maintained at 90-day follow-up and with large effect sizes (e.g., d=1.17).

The Role of Eye Movements in EMDR: Conducting Eye Movements While Concentrating on Negative Autobiographical Memories Results in Fewer Intrusions. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 10(1), 13-22.

The findings from both experiments provided support for the hypotheses and indicated that rapid eye movements were associated with a lower frequency of intrusive thoughts compared to conditions involving no or slow eye movements. Additionally, Experiment 2 revealed a correlation between the number of intrusions experienced after fast eye movements and the individual's central executive capacity.

Randomized Trial on the Effects of a Group EMDR Intervention on Narrative Complexity and Specificity of Autobiographical Memories: A Path Analytic and Supervised Machine-Learning Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(13), 7684.

The EMDR group intervention demonstrated improvements in SUD (Substance Use Disorder) and VoC (Sense of Coherence) scales, as well as narrative complexity and specificity, while facilitating the classification of autobiographical memories as relational. The path analysis revealed that SUD had a predictive effect on VoC and narrative specificity, which, in turn, influenced narrative complexity and the classification of autobiographical memories as relational.

A controlled comparison of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing versus exposure plus cognitive restructuring, versus waiting list in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 9, 299-318.

Both EMDR and exposure therapy plus cognitive restructuring (with daily homework)  produced significant improvement.  EMDR was more beneficial for depression and required fewer treatment sessions.

[Effect of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing on stress in patients undergoing hemodialysis]. Iranian Journal of Nursing Research, 11(5). doi:10.21859/ijnr-11051. Persian

A randomized clinical trial was carried out on 90 patients receiving hemodialysis at Shahid Rajaeu Hospital between 2015 and 2016. In the experimental group, the average anxiety score was 66.77 ± 16.15 before the intervention, which decreased to 38.22 ± 7.45 after the intervention. The mean score showed a significant difference between pre- and post-intervention in the experimental group (P < 0.001).

Efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing on the phantom limb pain of patients with amputations within a 24-month follow-up. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, 40(3), 209.

The experimental group participants received individual EMDR therapy consisting of 12 one-hour sessions over a period of one month. Prior to and after each session, the patients completed the Subjective Units of Distress Scale and a pain-rating scale. EMDR therapy demonstrated effectiveness in treating phantom limb pain (PLP). The therapy's efficacy, along with the sustained positive effects observed at the 24-month follow-up, recommend its use as a treatment option for PLP.

A controlled study of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disordered sexual assault victims. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 61, 317-334.

Three 90-minute sessions of EMDR eliminated post-traumatic stress disorder in 90% of rape victims.

Prolonged exposure versus eye movement desensitization (EMDR) for PTSD rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 607-616.

In this NIMH funded study both treatments were effective: “An interesting potential clinical implication is that EMDR seemed to do equally well in the main despite less exposure and no homework. It will be important for future research to explore these issues.”

The effectiveness of EMDR in a child guidance center. Research on Social Work Practice, 11(4), 435-457.

These findings cast uncertainty on the belief that EMDR leads to swift and remarkable improvements in children who have emotional and behavioral difficulties not directly tied to a specific trauma and require customized adjustments from the standard EMDR protocol. In light of the unique challenges associated with implementing the EMDR protocol in cases similar to those in this study, further research is necessary.

Effectiveness of EMDR in patients with substance use disorder and comorbid PTSD: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry, 17

The anticipated outcome of EMDR being more effective than non-trauma-focused PTSD treatment in reducing PTSD symptoms may encourage the utilization of trauma-focused treatment approaches for individuals with substance-use disorders and co-occurring PTSD.

Brief psychological intervention with traumatized young women: The efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 25-44.

Two sessions of EMDR reduced psychological distress in traumatized adolescents/ young women and brought scores within one standard deviation of the norm.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Pilot Blinded, Randomized Study of Stimulation Type. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 75(5), 290-7.

Each of the three types of stimulation led to significant clinical reductions in subjective units of distress.

Early EMDR intervention following a community critical incident: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 9, 17-27.

At 1 week posttreatment, the scores of the immediate treatment group were significantly improved on the IES-R compared to the waitlist/delayed treatment group, who showed no improvement prior to their treatment. At 3 months follow-up, results on the IES-R were maintained and there was a significant improvement on PHQ-9 scores.

Efficacy of the eye movement desensitization procedure in the treatment of traumatic memories. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2, 199–223.

Seminal study appeared the same year as first controlled studies of CBT treatments.   Three-month follow-up indicated substantial effects on distress and behavioral reports. Marred by lack of standardized measures and the originator serving as sole therapist.

The effect of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing on the fear of hypoglycemia in type 2 diabetic patients: a randomized clinical trial. BMC Psychology, 8, 1-8.

One month after completing the intervention, there was a reduction of 15 points on the fear of hypoglycemia scale. Three months after the intervention, there was a reduction of 17 points. After correcting for potential disruptors, the intervention resulted in a reduction of 19.5 scores one month after completion and a reduction of 20.3 scores three months after the intervention. These findings suggest that EMDR can be an effective non-pharmaceutical treatment approach for managing and alleviating fear of hypoglycemia in individuals with type 2 diabetes.

A randomized controlled trial comparing the clinical efficacy and cost-effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) and integrated EMDR-Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT) in the treatment of patients with post-traumatic stress disorder and comorbid (Sub)clinical borderline personality disorder: study design. BMC Psychiatry, 20, 1-18.

A clinical trial was conducted to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of EMDR-DBT (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing-Dialectical Behavior Therapy) and EMDR-only treatments in patients diagnosed with PTSD and comorbid BPD (Borderline Personality Disorder). The hypothesis posited that EMDR-DBT, despite being more costly, would yield greater cost-effectiveness compared to EMDR-only treatment.

A controlled study of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) for boys with conduct problems. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 6, 217-236.

The addition of three sessions of EMDR resulted in large and significant reductions of memory-related distress, and problem behaviors by 2-month follow-up.

Eye Movement Desensitization (EMD) to reduce posttraumatic stress disorder-related stress reactivity in Indonesia PTSD patients: a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials, 22(1)

A comparison was conducted between EMD (Eye Movement Desensitization) eye movements and a retrieval-only control condition to assess their effectiveness in reducing stress reactivity in patients with PTSD. The findings indicated that EMD eye movements were more effective in reducing stress reactivity compared to the control condition. The effectiveness of EMD interventions in reducing stress reactivity outcomes provides valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of EMDR's effectiveness in reducing PTSD symptoms.

 Early psychological preventive intervention for workplace violence: A randomized controlled explorative and comparative study between EMDR-recent event and critical incident stress debriefing. Issues in Mental Health Nursing37(11), 787-799.

Results showed that after 3 months PCLS and SUDS scores were significantly lower with EMDR-RE and delayed EMDR-RE compared to CISD. After 48 hours and 3 months, none of the EMDR-RE-treated victims showed PTSD symptoms.

Comparative efficacy, speed, and adverse effects of three PTSD treatments: Exposure therapy, EMDR, and relaxation training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 330-338.

The only randomized study to show exposure statistically superior to EMDR on two subscales (out of 10).  This study used therapist assisted “in vivo” exposure, where the therapist takes the person to previously avoided areas, in addition to imaginal exposure and one hour of daily homework (@ 50 hours).  The EMDR group used only standard sessions and no homework.

Eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing therapy v. stabilisation as usual for refugees: Randomised controlled trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry, bjp-bp.

Six EMDR processing sessions were used to treat participants with unstable living conditions and a mean of 14 traumatic memories: “Intention-to-treat analyses found no differences in safety (one severe adverse event in the stabilisation condition only) or efficacy.

Effects of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) on non-specific chronic back pain: a randomized controlled trial with additional exploration of the underlying mechanisms. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 14, 256.

The study aims to examine the effectiveness of EMDR treatment in addressing chronic back pain (CBP) in patients who have experienced psychological trauma. It specifically compares the impact of a short-term, standardized EMDR intervention when added to treatment as usual, in reducing pain intensity among CBP patients with psychological trauma, as compared to treatment as usual alone.

Prolonged exposure versus eye movement desensitization and reprocessing versus waiting list for posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with a psychotic disorder: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 72(3):259-267.

Standard PE and EMDR therapy protocols are effective, safe, and feasible in patients with PTSD and severe psychotic disorders, including current symptoms. Additional evaluation Indicated trauma-focused treatment was associated with significantly less exacerbation, less adverse events, and reduced revictimization compared with the WL condition: van den Berg D.P.G., et al. Trauma-focused treatment in PTSD-patients with psychosis: symptom exacerbation, adverse events, and revictimization. Schizophrenia Bulletin. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbv172.

 A randomized clinical trial of EMDR, fluoxetine and pill placebo in the treatment of PTSD: Treatment effects and long-term maintenance. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68, 37-46.

EMDR was superior to both control conditions in the amelioration of both PTSD symptoms and depression.  Upon termination of therapy, the EMDR group continued to improve while the Fluoxetine participants again became symptomatic.

Phase-based treatment versus immediate trauma-focused treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder due to childhood abuse: randomised clinical trial. BJPsych Open, 7(6)

Data analysis was conducted using linear mixed models, revealing no significant differences between the two treatments on any variable at both post-treatment and follow-up assessments. At post-treatment, 68.8% of participants no longer met diagnostic criteria for PTSD. Self-reported PTSD symptoms significantly decreased for both STAIR-EMDR therapy (effect size d=0.93) and EMDR therapy (effect size d=1.54) from pre-treatment to post-treatment assessment, with no significant differences observed between the two treatment conditions.

 Phase-based treatment versus immediate trauma-focused treatment in patients with childhood trauma-related posttraumatic stress disorder: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials, 19(1), 138.

The findings of this study can provide valuable insights into the ongoing discussion regarding the potential benefits of a phase-based approach compared to immediate trauma-focused therapy for individuals with PTSD resulting from childhood abuse. Additionally, these results enhance our understanding of the safety, effectiveness, and cost-effectiveness of treatments within this specific population.

A trial of eye movement desensitization compared to image habituation training and applied muscle relaxation in post-traumatic stress disorder.  Journal of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 25, 283-291.

All treatments led to significant decreases in PTSD symptoms for subjects in the treatment groups as compared to those on a waiting list, with a greater reduction in the EMDR group, particularly with respect to intrusive symptoms.  In the 2-3 weeks of the study, 40-60 additional minutes of daily homework were part of the treatment in the other two conditions.

 Trauma-focused treatments for refugee children: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial of the effectiveness of KIDNET versus EMDR therapy versus a waitlist control group (KIEM). Trials, 23(1)https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-022-06178-z

This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of both KIDNET and EMDR treatment groups compared to a waitlist control group. The results indicated that both KIDNET and EMDR treatments were successful in reducing trauma symptoms.

EMDR Versus CBT for Children With Self-Esteem and Behavioral Problems: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 2, 180-189.

Twenty-six children (average age 10.4 years) with behavioral problems were randomly assigned to receive either 4 sessions of EMDR or CBT. Both were found to have significant positive effects on behavioral and self-esteem problems, with the EMDR group showing significantly larger changes in target behaviors.

The effect of twice-weekly versus once-weekly sessions of either imagery rescripting or eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for adults with PTSD from childhood trauma (IREM-Freq): a study protocol for an international randomized clinical trial. Trials, 22(1)

Optimal session frequency is crucial in EMDR treatments to achieve favorable treatment outcomes and minimize dropout rates, thereby contributing to reduced healthcare costs.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): Treatment for psychologically traumatized individuals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 928-937.

Three sessions of EMDR produced clinically significant change in traumatized civilians on multiple measures.

Fifteen-month follow-up of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder and psychological trauma. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 1047-1056.

Follow-up at 15 months showed maintenance of positive treatment effects with 84% remission of PTSD diagnosis.

Web-Based Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing for Adults With Suicidal Ideation: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial. JMIR Research Protocols, 10(11)

EMDR can serve as an acute intervention for individuals at risk of suicide. This study aims to assess the safety and effectiveness of web-based delivery of EMDR as a treatment modality to reduce suicidal ideation, with the potential to decrease the occurrence of suicide attempts among this specific patient population.

Electroencephalography Coherence, Memory Vividness, and Emotional Valence Effects of Bilateral Eye Movements During Unpleasant Memory Recall and Subsequent Free Association: Implications for Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 9(2), 78-97.

Significant statistical increases were observed in intrahemispheric coherences of Right Frontal Theta and Beta after bilateral eye movements (BEMs), accompanied by a similar increasing trend in Left Frontal Theta and Beta, as well as Right Frontal Gamma. Cortical electrode maps were generated to visualize the effects of Beta coherence. Participants provided ratings of imagery vividness and emotional valence after each set of eye movements, along with free associations, and a significant decrease was observed across all conditions.

An eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) group intervention for Syrian refugees with post traumatic stress symptoms. Frontiers in Psychology9, 493.

The percentage of PTSD diagnosis decreased from 100 to 38.9% in the EMDR G-TEP group and was unchanged in the control group. Following the EMDR G-TEP intervention 61.1% of the experimental group no longer had a PTSD diagnosis; this decrease was maintained at 4 weeks follow-up.

Non-Randomized Studies

Helping child flood victims using group EMDR intervention in Argentina: Treatment outcome and gender differences.  International Journal of Stress Management. 16, 138-153.

A comprehensive group intervention with 124 children, who experienced disaster related trauma during a massive flood utilizing a one session group protocol. Significant differences were obtained and maintained at 3-month follow up.

Neuropsychological and Physiological Outcomes Pre- and Post-EMDR Therapy for a Woman With PTSD: A Case Study. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 9(4), 174-187.

Significant reductions were observed in mean scores on the Beck Depression Inventory-II and the Dissociative Experiences Scale following the treatment, indicating a substantial improvement. Additionally, there were no signs of PTSD in the patient, as assessed by the Posttraumatic Stress Global Scale, after the intervention. At the 1-year follow-up, the participant reported that the treatment effects had been maintained.

Effect of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) on severity of stress in emergency medical technicians. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 12, 289-296.

Following the implementation of EMDR, the intensity of stress was found to be 25.9±7.3 in the intervention group and 33±13.1 in the control group. The difference between the two groups was statistically significant (P<0.05).

An Adult with Childhood Medical Trauma Treated with Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy and EMDR: A Case Study. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 42(2), 95-105.

The therapy led to significant healing outcomes, including reduced depression, decreased hypervigilance, and improved concentration abilities. These positive changes resulted in the discontinuation of medication for depression and ADHD, and overall functioning showed significant improvement.

Treatment of Gay Men for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Resulting from Social Ostracism and Ridicule: Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Approaches. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37(2), 305-16.

The combination of REBT and EMDR proved beneficial in assisting these patients in reinterpreting their irrational thoughts that were contributing to their distressing emotions and self-destructive coping mechanisms.

EMDR as Add-On Treatment for Psychiatric and Traumatic Symptoms in Patients with Substance Use Disorder. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 2333.

The group receiving treatment as usual (TAU) combined with EMDR therapy showed significant improvements in post-traumatic and dissociative symptoms, along with a decrease in anxiety and overall psychopathology levels. In contrast, the TAU-only group experienced a significant reduction solely in post-traumatic symptoms.

Reducing posttraumatic stress in parents of patients with a rare inherited metabolic disorder using eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy: a case study. Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases, 16, 1-6.

Both parents reported feeling more resilient and competent in dealing with future challenges related to their child's illness, and no negative effects were reported. Quantitative results demonstrated a clinically significant reduction in post-traumatic stress symptoms and comorbid psychological distress from pre- to post-treatment, and these positive effects were sustained at the follow-up assessment.

Effectiveness of an intensive treatment programme combining prolonged exposure and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for severe post-traumatic stress disorder. [La efectividad de un programa de tratamiento intensivo combinando exposición prolongada y emdr para trastorno de estrés postraumático severo (TEPT)] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(1)

Comprehensive treatment programs that focus on trauma, such as prolonged exposure, EMDR therapy, and physical activity, have shown effectiveness in addressing severe PTSD in patients, with minimal rates of treatment discontinuation.

Pediatric seizure-related posttraumatic stress and anxiety symptoms treated with EMDR: a case series. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7(1)

Prior to undergoing EMDR therapy, the children exhibited (sub)clinical symptoms of posttraumatic stress and anxiety related to seizures, as indicated by overall and subscale scores. Following EMDR treatment, a majority of the children demonstrated significant individual improvement, with many achieving clinically meaningful outcomes. These positive effects were sustained or further improved during the follow-up period. On average, the therapy consisted of two sessions, ranging from 13 to 45 minutes per session.

Comparison of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) and Duloxetine Treatment Outcomes in Women Patients with Somatic Symptom Disorder. Sleep and Hypnosis (Online), 19(3), 70-77.

After six weeks of treatment, the EMDR group exhibited significantly greater improvement compared to the duloxetine group, indicating the effectiveness of EMDR as a highly promising therapy. These findings support the consideration of EMDR as one of the first-line interventions for the treatment of somatic symptom disorders (SSD).

The relative efficacy and treatment distress of EMDR and a cognitive behavioral trauma treatment protocol in the amelioration of post-traumatic stress disorder.Journal of Anxiety Disorders13, 131-157.

The only EMDR research study that found CBT superior to EMDR.  The study is marred by poor treatment delivery and higher expectations in the CBT condition.  Treatment was delivered in both conditions by the developer of the CBT protocol.

Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing in the treatment of trauma with mild intellectual disabilities: a case study. Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities, 8(1), 63-71.

The study found that all three core clinical subgroups of the PDS, including re-experiencing, avoidance, and arousal, showed reductions in symptoms. These improvements were maintained at both one-month and six-month follow-ups. Notably, the greatest reduction in symptom severity was observed in the avoidance domain.

 Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing in the treatment of trauma with mild intellectual disabilities: a case study. Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities, 8(1), 63-71.

The study revealed that symptoms in all three core clinical subgroups of the PDS, namely re-experiencing, avoidance, and arousal, were reduced. These improvements were sustained at both one-month and six-month follow-up assessments. Notably, the most significant reduction in symptom severity was observed within the avoidance domain.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Therapy as a Feasible and Potential Effective Treatment for Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and a History of Adverse Events. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 1-14.

The findings indicate that EMDR therapy is a viable and potentially beneficial approach for treating individuals with ASD who experience the repercussions of distressing events.

Psychotherapeutic Techniques for Distressing Memories: A Comparative Study between EMDR, Brainspotting, and Body Scan Meditation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(3), 1142.

Significant reductions in SUD scores were observed with EMDR, BSP, and BSM interventions from pre- to post-intervention (p < 0.001). At both post-intervention and follow-up assessments, SUD scores for EMDR and BSP were significantly lower compared to BSM and BR (p < 0.02).

EMDR as treatment of post-traumatic reactions: A field study on child victims of an earthquake. Educational and Child Psychology. Special Issue: Therapy, 24, 65-72.

This field study explores the effectiveness of EMDR and the level of post-traumatic reactions in a post-emergency context on 22 children victims of an earthquake. The results show that EMDR contributed to the reduction or remission of PTSD symptoms and facilitated the processing of the traumatic experience.

A school- based EMDR intervention for children who witnessed the Pirelli building airplane crash in Milan, Italy.  Journal of Brief Therapy, 2, 129-136.

A group intervention of EMDR was provided to 236 schoolchildren exhibiting PTSD symptoms 30 days post-incident.  At four-month follow up, teachers reported that all but two children evinced a return to normal functioning after treatment.

 Preliminary Evidence for the Efficacy of EMDR in Treating Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 2(1), 26-40.

At both the post-treatment and 2-month follow-up assessments, none of the four participants met the diagnostic criteria for Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). Moreover, time-series analyses using ARMA models demonstrated statistically significant improvement in daily measures of worry and anxiety throughout the course of the EMDR treatment.

An Efficient System for Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Therapy: A Pilot Study. Healthcare, 10(1), 133.

The findings demonstrated the effectiveness of the EMDR virtual assistant system in reducing anxiety, distress, and negative cognitions and emotions related to the traumatic memory.

An empirical evaluation of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) with survivors of a natural catastrophe. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 10, 665-671.

A study of Hurricane Andrew survivors found significant differences on the Impact of Event Scale and subjective distress in a comparison of EMDR and non-treatment condition.

A Pilot Study of Concentrated EMDR: A Brief Report. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 5(1), 14-24.

Concentrated EMDR has shown potential efficacy in the treatment of comorbid MDD and panic disorder with agoraphobia. The study examined the application of concentrated EMDR, which involved increasing the treatment frequency from one session to three sessions per week. A total of twelve 90-minute reprocessing sessions were conducted over a period of 1 month. The results indicate the apparent effectiveness of concentrated EMDR.

 Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) as a Possible Evidence-Based Rehabilitation Treatment Option for a Patient with ADHD and History of Adverse Childhood Experiences: A Case Report Study. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 13(2), 200.

EMDR shows promise as a potential treatment for children with ADHD who have a history of traumatic experiences, in addition to pharmacological interventions.

Eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing (EMDR) treatment associated with parent management training (PMT) for the acute symptoms in a patient with PANDAS syndrome: a case report. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 45

After undergoing eight sessions of EMDR therapy, preceded by parental training sessions, the child demonstrated a notable decrease in symptoms and the exacerbation disappeared. These findings suggest that a combined approach incorporating both antibiotic treatment and EMDR therapy holds promise for improving treatment outcomes in patients with PANDAS.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing ( EMDR ) therapy in the treatment of depression: a matched pairs study in an inpatient setting. Brain and Behavior, 5(6)

EMDR therapy exhibits promise as a viable treatment for depressive disorders. However, further replication of our findings through larger controlled studies is required.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Bio-Psycho-Social Aspects, Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing and Autogenic Training in Persistent Stress: Case Study, Part 1. European Journal of Mental Health, 8(1), 81-101.

EMDR was employed to mitigate the symptoms of PTSD, while AT aimed to enhance resilience in the face of ongoing stressors. Given the case's close association with contemporary social and political developments, we deemed it crucial to emphasize the social dimension within the bio-psycho-social model of mental health and illness.

EMDR with children and adolescents after single-incident trauma an intervention study. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 3, 2-9.

36 children and adolescents ranging in age from 1 year 9 months to 18 years 1 month were assessed at intake, post-waitlist/pretreatment, and at follow up. EMDR treatment resulted in significant improvement, demonstrating that children younger than 4 years of age showed the same benefit as the school-age children.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing as an Adjunctive Treatment of Unipolar Depression: A Controlled Study. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 8(3), 103-112.

The adjunctive EMDR group exhibited a significantly higher number of remissions at posttreatment, with remissions defined as a symptom level below a BDI-II score of 12. Specifically, the adjunctive EMDR group achieved 18 remissions, whereas the control group achieved 8 remissions (p < .001).

ECEM (Eye Closure, Eye Movements): Application to Depersonalization Disorder. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 52(2), 95-109.

During Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) with Eye Closure and Eye Movements (ECEM), clients were able to generate six to seven trials of eye movements while maintaining a hypnotic state. The purpose of these eye movements was to alleviate anticipatory anxiety commonly associated with depersonalization disorder.

Effective Treatment of Veterans With PTSD: Comparison Between Intensive Daily and Weekly EMDR Approaches. Frontiers in Psychology, 24 August 2018.

The results indicated that both weekly treatment and intensive daily treatment groups produced statistically significant treatment effects (p < 0.001) that were maintained at 1-year follow-up.

The EMDR integrative group treatment protocol: Application with adults during ongoing geopolitical crisis. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 4, 148-155.

In this study, the EMDR-IGTP was applied during three consecutive days to a group of 20 adults during ongoing geopolitical crisis in a Central American country in 2009. . . Changes on the IES were maintained at 14 weeks follow-up even though participants were still exposed to ongoing crisis.

EMDR integrative group treatment protocol: A post-disaster trauma intervention for children and adults. Traumatology, 12, 121-129.

A study of 44 children treated with a group protocol after a flood in Mexico indicates that one session of treatment reduced trauma symptoms from the severe range to low (subclinical) levels of distress.  Data from successful treatment at other disaster sites are also reported.

 The EMDR integrative group treatment protocol: Application with child victims of mass disaster. Journal of  EMDR Practice and Research, 2, 97-105.

In this study the EMDR-IGTP was used with 16 bereaved children after a human provoked disaster in the Mexican State of Coahuila in 2006. Results showed a significant decrease in scores on the Child’s Reaction to Traumatic Events Scale that was maintained at 3-month follow-up.

Pilot research study on the provision of the eye movement desensitization and reprocessing integrative group treatment protocol with female cancer patients. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research9(2), 98-105.

EMDR-IGTP intensive therapy was administered for 3 consecutive days, twice daily. . . . Results also showed an overall subjective improvement in the participants.

The provision of an EMDR-based multicomponent trauma treatment with child victims of severe interpersonal trauma. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research7(1), 17-28.

Results showed significant improvement for all the participants on the Child’s Reaction to Traumatic Events Scale (CRTES) and the Short PTSD Rating Interview (SPRINT), with treatment results maintained at follow-up.

The EMDR protocol for recent critical incidents: Brief report of an application in a human massacre situation. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 5, 156-165.

Each individual client session lasted between 90 and 120 minutes. Results showed that one session of EMDR-PRECI produced significant improvement on self-report measures of posttraumatic stress and PTSD symptoms for both the immediate treatment and waitlist/delayed treatment groups.

The EMDR protocol for recent critical incidents: Follow-up report of an application in a human massacre situation. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 6, 50-61.

Follow-up scores showed that the original treatment results were maintained, with a further significant reduction of self-reported symptoms of posttraumatic stress and PTSD between posttreatment and follow-up. . . . [S]cores of all participants were far below PTSD cutoff level.

EMDR Effects on Pursuit Eye Movements. PLoS One, 5(5)

EMDR therapy was utilized to address autobiographic worries that were causing moderate distress. Following the EMDR session, there was an improvement observed in pursuit eye movements. Specifically, the number of Corrective Saccades (CUS) decreased, and in turn, the smooth components of the pursuit showed an increased gain. Consequently, the overall outcome of EMDR was an enhancement in the smoothness of the pursuit.

EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing): A Different Option in Psychotherapy: Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences. Dusunen Adam, 23(3), 195-205.

Considering the proven efficacy of EMDR in addressing trauma and related disorders, the widespread adoption of this technique among mental health professionals has the potential to enhance their proficiency in treating psychiatric conditions. Moreover, it offers patients afflicted with these disorders an opportunity for relatively swift recovery.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) for Hyperemesis Gravidarum: a Case Series: Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences. Dusunen Adam, 27(4), 335-341.

The therapeutic impact of EMDR on PTSD can be attributed to adaptive information processing. EMDR treatment for PTSD involves desensitizing the traumatic triggers. Four out of five cases showed rapid response to EMDR therapy, while one case experienced recurring HG symptoms, which were subsequently found to be related to gall bladder disease upon further clinical evaluation. The use of EMDR as an adjunctive treatment for HG symptoms may be an effective option.

Treating morbid jealousy with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing utilizing cognitive inter-weave--a case report. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 13(2), 175-189.

The therapeutic approach of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), incorporating cognitive interweave, was employed to challenge negative self-worth schemas. This intervention led to a decrease in symptoms and facilitated the subject in developing more accurate perceptions of their partner's behavior.

The effects of EMDR therapy on post-traumatic stress disorder in survivors of the 1999 Marmara, Turkey, earthquake.  International Journal of Stress Management, 13, 291-308.

Data reported on a representative sample of 1500 earthquake victims indicated that five sessions of EMDR successfully eliminated PTSD in 92.7% of those treated, with a reduction of symptoms in the remaining participants.

The Effect of Single-Session Modified EMDR on Acute Stress Syndromes. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 2(3), 190-200.

During the 4-week and 6-month follow-up periods, individuals who exhibited immediate response within the group of terror victims maintained a state free from symptoms. The immediate responders typically displayed uncomplicated acute stress (AS) symptoms and had fewer risk factors associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Conversely, the nonresponders had a higher history of previous traumas and showed a greater endorsement of risk factors for PTSD.

Crucial Processes in EMDR. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, Suppl. Special Issue on Possible EMDR Mechanisms of Action, 2(4), 262-268.

In accordance with an information processing model, there was a significant association between the degree of distancing in EMDR and the level of improvement observed.

An evaluation of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy delivered remotely during the Covid–19 pandemic. BMC Psychiatry, 21, 1-8.

A total of 93 patients were assessed for efficacy by thirty-three therapists. The results indicated statistically significant and clinically meaningful reductions in all four psychometric measures for both adult and children/young people populations. Notably, client outcomes were not found to be associated with therapist experience. Therefore, it can be concluded that internet-delivered EMDR is an effective treatment option for individuals facing mental health issues.

Outcomes from eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in active-duty service members with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tra0000120

Results indicated that patients receiving EMDR had significantly fewer therapy sessions over 10 weeks but had significantly greater gains in their PCL–M scores than did individuals not receiving EMDR.

EMDR Treatment in People with Mild ID and PTSD: 4 Cases. Psychiatric Quarterly, 82(1), 43-57.

In every case, symptoms of PTSD showed a decrease, and these improvements were sustained during the follow-up period ranging from 3 months to 2.5 years. Furthermore, there was a reduction in depressive symptoms and physical complaints, as well as an improvement in social and adaptive skills. These findings collectively support the efficacy of EMDR in individuals with mild intellectual disabilities, indicating its suitability for this population.

Treatment of a Patient with Borderline Personality Disorder Based on Phase-Oriented Model of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR): A Case Report. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry, 13(1), 80-83.

The findings provided support for the beneficial impact of the phasic model of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) on individuals with borderline personality disorder.

Case Report: Pharmacotherapy and EMDR Psychotherapy as an Effective Treatment for OCD Imagery in a Patient with a Psychotic Disorder. Israel Journal of Psychiatry, 57(1), 47-54.

This clinical case report adds to the existing body of evidence on the effectiveness of EMDR as a complementary treatment to pharmacotherapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), particularly in relation to OCD imagery. Furthermore, it contributes to the expanding body of research demonstrating the positive impact of EMDR therapy in individuals with psychotic disorders.

A single session EMDR study with twenty traumatized children and adolescents. Traumatology-e, 3(2), Article 6.

In this delayed treatment comparison, over half of the participants moved from clinical to normal levels on the Impact of Events Scale, and all but 3 showed at least partial symptom relief on several measures at 1-3 m following a single EMDR session.

Improvement of mood and sleep alterations in posttraumatic stress disorder patients by eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience.

The patients experienced improved sleep quality, characterized by reduced time spent awake after falling asleep, indicating better sleep consolidation. In conclusion, Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) proved to be an effective treatment for individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), leading to improvements in both sleep and psychological symptoms associated with the condition.

EMDR for childhood PTSD after road traffic accidents: Attentional, memory, and attributional processes. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research,4(4), 138-147.

EMDR was used with 11 children who developed posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after road traffic accidents. All improved such that none met criteria for PTSD on standardized assessments after an average of only 2.4 sessions. . . Treatment was associated with a significant trauma-specific reduction in attentional bias on the modified Stroop task, with results apparent both immediately after therapy and at follow-up.

A trauma-focused approach for patients with tinnitus: the effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing – a multicentre pilot trial. [针对耳鸣患者的创伤焦点方法:眼动脱敏再加工(EMDR)的有效性,一个多中心试研究。] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(1)

Significant improvements were observed in the primary outcome measure, TFI (Tinnitus Functional Index), following EMDR treatment as indicated by repeated measures analysis of variance. These treatment effects were found to be stable at the 3-month follow-up assessment. Notably, no adverse events or side effects were reported during the course of this trial. This study represents the first evidence suggesting the effectiveness of EMDR in reducing distress related to tinnitus.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing as a therapy for rape victims: A case series. Clinical Case Reports, 10(3)

EMDR, an abbreviation for Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing, was utilized as an intervention to mitigate the risk of suicide or suicidal thoughts. The findings indicate that EMDR can serve as an effective treatment option for reducing the intensity of suicidal ideation among individuals who have experienced sexual assault.

Responding to an identified need: A joint Department of Defense-Department of Veterans Affairs training program in eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) for clinicians providing trauma services. International Journal of Stress Management, 14, 61-71.

72 active-duty military personnel were treated with EMDR therapy by nine different therapists in actual clinic settings. Results indicated that “the disturbance associated with the targeted traumatic memories had been largely eliminated and a new more positive perspective had developed. These changes were corroborated with the IES-R and BDI scores falling from the severe range to the mild or subclinical range.” Average treatment time: 8.50 sessions if wounded and 3.82 sessions if nonwounded.

The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy to treat symptoms following trauma in Timor Leste. Journal of Traumatic Stress.

These findings suggest that benefits can be achieved with EMDR therapy for decreasing PTSD symptoms in a post-war, cross-cultural setting in a relatively short period (on average 4 treatment sessions over 13 days).

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing treatment of Vietnam war veterans with PTSD: Comparative effects with biofeedback and relaxation training. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 337-342.

The analysis of an inpatient veterans’ PTSD program (n=100) found EMDR to be vastly superior to biofeedback and relaxation training on seven of eight measures.

EMDR therapy following the 9/11 terrorist attacks: A community-based intervention project in New York City. International Journal of Stress Management, 12, 29-42.

Clients made highly significant positive gains on a range of outcome variables, including validated psychometrics and self-report scales.  Analyses of the data indicate that EMDR is a useful treatment intervention both in the immediate aftermath of disaster as well as later.

A peer support workshop for the treatment of traumatic stress of railroad personnel: Contributions of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). Journal of Brief Therapy, 2, 27-33,

60 railroad employees who had experienced fatal grade crossing accidents were evaluated for workshop outcomes, and for the additive effects of EMDR treatment.  Although the workshop was successful, in this setting, the addition of a short session of EMDR (5-40 minutes) led to significantly lower, sub clinical, scores which further decreased at follow up.

The use of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing  (EMDR) in the treatment of traumatic stress and complicated mourning:  Psychological and behavioral outcomes. Research on Social Work Practice11, 300-320.

In a multi-site study, EMDR significantly reduced symptoms more often than the CBT treatment on behavioral measures, and on four of five psychosocial measures.  EMDR was more efficient, inducing change at an earlier stage and requiring fewer sessions.  

The Recent-Traumatic Episode Protocol: Outcome Evaluation and Analysis of Three Case Studies. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 5(3), 95-110.

All clients demonstrated noticeable improvements in behavior and functioning following the R-TEP treatment, as observed through pre-post assessments.

Effect of the EMDR Psychotherapeutic Approach on Emotional Cognitive Processing in Patients with Depression. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 13(1), 396-405.

The findings indicated that EMDR had a beneficial impact on both emotional cognitive processing and the conceptual organization of long-term memory.

Effectiveness of an intensive treatment programme combining prolonged exposure and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for severe post-traumatic stress disorder. [La efectividad de un programa de tratamiento intensivo combinando exposición prolongada y emdr para trastorno de estrés postraumático severo (TEPT)] European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(1), 1-10.

There was a notable reduction in symptom severity, with 82.9% of participants showing a clinically meaningful response and 54.9% no longer meeting diagnostic criteria at post-treatment. Dropout rate was remarkably low at 2.3%. The findings suggest that intensive trauma-focused treatment programs, such as those incorporating prolonged exposure, EMDR therapy, and physical activity, can be highly effective for individuals with severe PTSD while maintaining low dropout rates.

Early Successful Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Therapy for Verbal Memory Impairment in an Adjustment Disorder: A Case Report in a Newly-Diagnosed Multiple Sclerosis Patient. Reports, 5(2), 17.

This case study presents a 25-year-old patient with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RR MS) who developed Alzheimer's disease (AD) accompanied by a verbal memory deficit after receiving the MS diagnosis. This is the first documented case of AD with a specific neuropsychological impairment (verbal memory) that emerged after the MS diagnosis and showed beneficial response to EMDR treatment. Further research is warranted to validate the effectiveness of EMDR in addressing cognitive impairment associated with AD in individuals with MS.

Efficacy of Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing (EMDR) in Improving Self-Regulation of In-House Filipino Clients with Substance-Use-Disorder.

The research confirmed that EMDR therapy enhances clients' self-regulation skills across multiple domains, including positive behavior, sense of control, emotional expression, assertiveness, and pursuit of well-being.

The use of EMDR in treatment of traumatized Iraqi children. Digest of Middle East Studies, 19, 26-36.

Our findings are consistent with the conclusion . . . that EMDR is effective for civilian PTSD, and it applies its treatment in a user-friendly manner . . . The results of the study demonstrated the effectiveness of EMDR in the treatment of PTSD in the experimental group compared to the control group.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Treatment of Nightmares: A Case Report. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 8(3), 129-134.

A client suffering from depression and chronic nightmares received four sessions of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), resulting in a reduction in nightmares and an improvement in overall well-being.

Use of Therapist Rotation Model for Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) in a Patient with Atopic Dermatitis. Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, 12(1), 45-47.

Test results, including measures of depression, anxiety, and AD disease severity, were compared before and after EMDR sessions. The patient exhibited a decrease in depression and anxiety scores following EMDR therapy. These findings suggest that EMDR may be beneficial in addressing the psychogenic component and itching complaint associated with AD. TRM (Trauma Resourcing Model) may be a rational, effective, and well-tolerated treatment option for individuals with these conditions.

Building resilience and dismantling fear: EMDR group protocol with children in an area of ongoing trauma. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 2, 106-113.

Results indicate that the EMDR approach can be effective in a group setting, and in an acute situation, both in reducing symptoms of posttraumatic and peritraumatic stress and in “inoculation” or building resilience in a setting of ongoing conflict and trauma.

Adaptive Information Processing
and EMDR Procedures

The Adaptive Information Processing model (Shapiro, 2001, 2002, 2007) is used to explain EMDR’s clinical effects and guide clinical practice. This model is not linked to any specific neurobiological mechanism since the field of neurobiology is as yet unable to determine this in any form of psychotherapy (nor of most medications).  This section includes literature to provide an overview of the model and procedures, as well as selected research and case reports that demonstrate the predictive value of the model in the treatment of life experiences that appear to underlie a variety of clinical complaints.

Physical punishment and mental disorders: Results from a nationally representative US sample. Pediatrics, 130, 184-192.

Harsh physical punishment [i.e., pushing, grabbing, shoving, slapping, hitting] in the absence of [more severe] child maltreatment is associated with mood disorders, anxiety disorders, substance abuse/dependence, and personality disorders in a general population sample.

EMDR group therapy with women who were sexually assaulted in the Congo. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research9, 28-34.

Rape victims were successfully treated within three sessions using both individual and group protocols. They reported the simultaneous remission of back and abdominal pain. These processing results are consistent with the reported remission of PLP with EMDR therapy.

Childhood trauma and children’s emerging psychotic symptoms: A genetically sensitive longitudinal cohort study. Am J Psychiatry, 168, 65–72.

Trauma characterized by intention to harm is associated with children’s reports of psychotic symptoms. Clinicians working with children who report early symptoms of psychosis should inquire about traumatic events such as maltreatment and bullying.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for adolescent depression. Psychiatry Investigation, 5, 60-65.

Processing of etiological disturbing memories, triggers and templates resulted in complete remission of Major Depressive Disorder in two teenagers. Treatment duration was 3-7 sessions and effects were maintained at follow-up.

Effect of EMDR on depression in patients with myocardial infarction Global Journal of Health Science, 7, 258-262.

In this randomized study, the mean depression level in experimental group significantly decreased following the intervention. These changes were significantly greater compared to the control group. Conclusion: “EMDR is an effective, useful, efficient, and non-invasive method for treatment and reducing depression in patients with MI.” A 12-month follow-up reported maintenance of treatment effects: Behnam, M. M., Behnam, M. A., & Salehian, T. (2015). Efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) on depression in patients with myocardial infarction (MI) in a 12-month follow up. Iranian Journal of Critical Care Nursing, 7, 221-226.

EMDR in the treatment of borderline personality disorder. Clinical Case Studies, 5, 403-420.

20 EMDR sessions that focused on reprocessing the memories seemingly at the foundation of the pathology, along with triggers and future templates resulted in a complete remission of BPD, including symptoms of affect dysregulation, as measured on the Inventory of Altered Self Capacities.

Body dysmorphic disorder: Seven cases treated with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 25, 203–207.

Seven consecutive cases were treated with up to three sessions of EMDR.  Complete remission of BDD symptoms were reported in five cases with effects maintained at one- year follow-up.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) re-examined as cognitive and emotional neuroentrainment. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience.

The primary goal is to develop theoretical and technical tools that enhance the understanding of how entrainments from diverse movement disciplines can promote the physical and mental development of healthy individuals and potentially serve as a treatment approach for patients with various pathological conditions. Within cognitive and behavioral (CBT)-inspired therapies, clinicians have access to a theoretical and technical tool known as Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) to address anxiety disorders, specifically Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

An Integrative Model for the Neural Mechanism of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR). Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience.

These effects can be achieved through two concurrent processes: (i) enhancing the activity level of the attentional control component, which improves attentional regulation; and (ii) employing bilateral stimulation in any sensorimotor modality, which reduces inhibition and facilitates the processing of dysfunctional information, leading to a reduction in anxiety.

 Efficacy of a trauma‐focused treatment approach for dental phobia: a randomized clinical trial. European Journal of Oral Sciences121, 584-593.

Three sessions of EMDR therapy memory processing resulted in remission of dental phobia. After 1 yr, 83.3% of the patients were in regular dental treatment (d = 3.20). The findings suggest that therapy aimed at processing memories of past dental events can be helpful for patients with dental phobia.

Treatment of chronic phantom limb pain (PLP) using a trauma-focused psychological approach. Pain Research and Management, 15, 65-71.

10 consecutive cases of phantom limb pain were treated with EMDR resulting in the reduction or elimination of pain in all but two cases.  Results were maintained at 2.8-year follow-up.

EMDR and cognitive behavioral therapy in the treatment of panic disorder: A comparison. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 7, 121-133.

As predicted by AIP, the processing of etiological events, triggers and memory templates was sufficient to alleviate the diagnosis without the use of treatment specific homework in contrast to the CBT group. In this study, there was “a continuing decrease in frequency of panic attacks for participants with PD or PDA in the EMDR condition at follow-up that was significantly greater than that found in the CBT treatment group.”

Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14, 245–258.

We found a strong dose response relationship between the breadth of exposure to abuse or household dysfunction during childhood and multiple risk factors for several of the leading causes of death in adults.

EMDR in the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia. Clinical Case Studies, 6, 44-63.

As predicted by AIP, the processing of etiological events, triggers and memory templates was sufficient to alleviate the diagnosis without the use of therapist-assisted in vivo exposure.

The efficacy of EMDR in the treatment of depression. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research10(2), 59-69.

This [RCT] investigated the efficacy of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) psychotherapy in treating the primary diagnosis of major depressive disorder by processing past or present trauma that was affecting the quality of life. . . . Results showed significant improvements on all measures with large effect sizes.

Preliminary evidence for the efficacy of EMDR in treating generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 2. 26- 40.

Four subjects were evaluated using a single case design with multiple baselines Results indicate that subsequent to targeting the experiential contributors, at posttreatment and at 2 months follow-up, all four participants no longer presented with GAD diagnosis.

Is life stress more traumatic than traumatic stress?. Journal of Anxiety Disorders19, 687-698.

[The non-Criterion A] group reported significantly greater severity of PTSD symptomatology than those who reported a Criterion A1 PTSD event. In addition, significantly more people in the DSM trauma-incongruent group met criteria for PTSD than those in the DSM trauma-congruent group.

Importance of studying the contributions of early adverse experience to neurobiological findings in depression. Neuropsychopharmacology, 29, 641–648.

The available data suggest that (1) early adverse experience contributes to the pathophysiology of depression, (2) there are neurobiologically different subtypes of depression depending on the presence or absence of early adverse experience, likely having confounded previous research on the neurobiology of depression, and (3) early adverse experience likely influences treatment response in depression.

Childhood trauma and psychosis: a case-control and case-sibling comparison across different levels of genetic liability, psychopathology, and type of trauma. Am J Psychiatry, 168, 1286-1294.

Discordance in psychotic illness across related individuals can be traced to differential exposure to trauma. The association between trauma and psychosis is apparent across different levels of illness and vulnerability to psychotic disorder, suggesting true association rather than reporting bias, reverse causality, or passive gene-environment correlation.

Adaptive Information Processing, Targeting, the Standard Protocol, and Strategies for Successful Outcomes in EMDR Reprocessing. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 6(3), 92-100.

The main areas of focus include: (a) The adaptive information processing model (b) The types of targets addressed during the EMDR process (c) The eight phases of EMDR (d) The components of the standard EMDR protocol used during the assessment phase (e) Considerations of the past, present, and future in terms of effective targeting and positive outcomes (f) Strategies and techniques for managing challenging clients, addressing high levels of emotional release (abreaction), and overcoming obstacles in the processing phase.

What is the Role of Eye Movements in Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)? A Review. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 41(3), 290-300.

The findings provide evidence to support the importance of eye movements (EMs) in EMDR therapy and justify their inclusion based on theoretical reasoning. The decision to choose EMDR or trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) should be based on the preferences of the patient and the expertise of the clinician. However, it is suggested that EMs may have a greater effectiveness in reducing distress, thereby creating an opportunity for other treatment components to be implemented.

EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing): A Different Option in Psychotherapy: Journal of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences. Dusunen Adam, 23(3), 195-205.

The efficacy of EMDR in treating trauma and related disorders suggests that its widespread adoption among mental health professionals can have multiple benefits. Not only can it enhance professionals' competency in dealing with psychiatric disorders, but it also offers patients suffering from these conditions an opportunity for relatively quick recovery.

Interview With Francine Shapiro: Historical Overview, Present Issues, and Future Directions of EMDR. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, Suppl. Special Issue on the 20th Anniversary of EMDR, 3(4), 217-231.

This article provides a comprehensive review of the historical development and evolution of EMDR, tracing its origins to its current state of practice and research. Additionally, it explores the current findings and applications of EMDR and discusses potential future directions for research and clinical advancements in the field.

Repairing failures in bonding through EMDR. Clinical Case Studies. 5, 271-286.

EMDR processing of experiential contributors to bonding disruption, in addition to current triggers, and a memory template of an alternative/problem free pregnancy and birth resulted in the repair of maternal bonding, analogous to the positive findings with the repair of disrupted attachment.

EMDR and olfactory reference syndrome: A case series. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research 2, 63-68.

EMDR treatment of four consecutive cases of ORS whose pathological symptoms had endured for 8–48 years resulted in a complete resolution of symptoms in all four cases, which was maintained at follow-up.

Potential of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 7, 273-283.

Empirical evidence supports the effectiveness of EMDR in treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), demonstrating comparable efficacy to other specific treatments for PTSD, such as trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy.

Symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder after non-traumatic events: Evidence from an open population study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 494–499.

Supports a basic tenet of the Adaptive Information Processing model that “Life events can generate at least as many PTSD symptoms as traumatic events.”  In a survey of 832 people, “For events from the past 30 years the PTSD scores were higher after life events than after traumatic event.”

Erasing memory traces of trauma with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7(1)

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy (EMDR) has become a widely recognized and established treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Extensive evidence supports its efficacy, and it is considered one of the primary treatment options for PTSD, alongside trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT).

Comparison of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing with citalopram in treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, 15, 270-274.

There was significant difference between the mean Yale–Brown scores of the two groups after treatment and EMDR was more effective than citalopram in improvement of OCD signs.

Biological sensitivity to context: The interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness. Child Development, 1, 270–289.

A substantive body of work has established that environmental adversity can have a deleterious effect on children’s functioning” “Exposure to adverse, stressful events . . .has been linked to socioemotional behavior problems and cognitive deficits.

A critical evaluation of current views regarding eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): Clarifying points of confusion. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 77-97.

Reviews common errors and misperceptions of the procedures, research, and theory.

Using eye movement desensitization and reprocessing to enhance treatment of couples. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 27(2), 157-64.

Incorporating EMDR into joint therapy sessions to process negative emotions has the potential to enhance intimacy, foster stronger connections, and consequently promote a transformation in problematic relationship dynamics.

Treatment of PTSD by eye movement desensitization and reprocessing improves sleep quality, quality of life and perception of stress. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1071, 508-513.

Specifically citing the hypothesis that EMDR induces processing effects similar to REM sleep (see also Stickgold, 2002, 2008), polysomnograms indicated a change in sleep patterns post treatment, and improvement on all measures including anxiety, depression, and quality of life after a mean of five sessions.

Cognitive behavioral therapies and beyond. In C. D. Tollison, J. R. Satterhwaite, & J. W. Tollison (Eds.) Practical Pain Management (3rd ed.; pp. 189-208). Philadelphia: Lippincott.

The authors note that the application of EMDR guided by the Adaptive Information Processing model appears to afford benefits to chronic pain patients not found in other treatments.

The traumagenic neurodevelopmental model of psychosis revisited. Neuropsychiatry4(1), 65-79.

[C]ontrary to long-held beliefs among biolog­ically oriented researchers and clinicians, the eti­ology of psychosis and schizophrenia are just as socially based [e.g., early-life adversity] as are nonpsychotic mental health problems, such as anxiety and depression.

Special Applications of EMDR: Treatment of Performance Anxiety, Sex Offenders, Couples, Families, and Traumatized Groups. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, Suppl.Special Issue on the 20th Anniversary of EMDR, 3(4), 279-288.

Every concise report offers a brief overview of the study, showcases the latest EMDR research, and identifies areas that require further exploration. Initial findings indicate that the EMDR-integrative group treatment protocol holds promise as an effective approach for delivering mental healthcare to large populations impacted by critical incidents.

Some effects of EMDR treatment with previously abused child molesters: Theoretical reviews and preliminary findings. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 17, 538-562.

As predicted by the Adaptive Information Processing model the EMDR treatment of the molesters’ own childhood victimization resulted in a decrease in deviant arousal as measured by the plethysmograph, a decrease in sexual thoughts, and increased victim empathy.  Effects maintained at one year follow up.

 Effect of Ocular Movements during Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Therapy: A Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Study. PLoS One, 11(10)

The study examined the impact of eye movements (EM) on prefrontal cortex (PFC) oxygenation during EMDR. The results showed that participants who received eye movements (wEM) exhibited a significant increase in oxy-Hb levels during the recall phase and a decrease during the pre-recall phase, in contrast to those without eye movements (woEM). Frequency analysis further revealed a reduction in sympathetic nervous system activity in the wEM group during the pre-recall phase.

Are traumatic events necessary to elicit symptoms of posttraumatic stress? Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2, 71-76.

Research data indicated similar levels of posttrauma symptom severity for all three symptom clusters among people who had endorsed the experience of only a traumatic type event and people who had reported the experience of only stressful negative life events [e.g., loss of job, problems with school or work, or change in financial status].

Treating traumatic amputation-related phantom limb pain:  a case study utilizing eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) within the armed services. Clinical Case Studies, 7, 136-153.

Since September 2006, over 725 service-members from the global war on terrorism have survived combat-related traumatic amputations that often result in phantom limb pain (PLP) syndrome. . . . Four sessions of Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) led to elimination of PLP, and a significant reduction in PTSD, depression, and phantom limb tingling sensations.

EMDR in the treatment of chronic phantom limb pain. Pain Medicine, 9, 76-82.

As predicted by the Adaptive Information Processing model the EMDR treatment of the event involving the limb loss, and the stored memories of the pain sensations, resulted a decrease or elimination of the phantom limb pain which was maintained at 1-year follow-up.

EMDR and phantom limb pain: Case study, theoretical implications, and treatment guidelines. Journal of EMDR Science and Practice, 1, 31-45.

Detailed presentation of case treated by EMDR that resulted in complete elimination of PTSD, depression and phantom limb pain with effects maintained at 18-month follow-up.

Adult PTSD and Its Treatment With EMDR: A Review of Controversies, Evidence, and Theoretical Knowledge. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 3(3), 117-132.

This article explores the evolution of EMDR and the extensive research supporting its effectiveness in treating adult PTSD. The underlying mechanisms of EMDR are examined, specifically emphasizing the significance of the eye movement component and highlighting the distinctive therapeutic processes employed in EMDR in comparison to traditional exposure therapy.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing psychotherapy: A model for integrative medicine. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 8(4), 100-3.

EMDR offers a rapid means for patients to address the psychological trauma and unresolved grief that can influence their perception of the development of physical illnesses. The effectiveness of EMDR is supported by robust empirical evidence.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols and procedures (3rd).  New York: Guilford Press.

EMDR is an eight-phase psychotherapy with standardized procedures and protocols that are all believed to contribute to therapeutic effect. This text provides description and clinical transcripts and an elucidation of the guiding Adaptive Information Processing model.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols and procedures(2nd ed.).  New York: Guilford Press.

EMDR is an eight-phase psychotherapy with standardized procedures and protocols that are all believed to contribute to therapeutic effect.  This text provides description and clinical transcripts and an elucidation of the guiding Adaptive Information Processing model.

(Ed.). EMDR as an integrative psychotherapy approach: Experts of diverse orientations explore the paradigm prism. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Books.

EMDR is an integrative approach distinct from other forms of psychotherapy.  Experts of the major psychotherapy orientations identify and highlight various procedural elements.

EMDR and new notes on adaptive information processing: Case formulation principles, scripts and worksheets. Camden, CT: EMDR Humanitarian Assistance Programs (http://www.emdrhap.org)

Overview of Adaptive Information Processing model, including how the principles are reflected in the procedures, phases and clinical applications of EMDR.  Comprehensive worksheets for client assessment, case formulation, and treatment as well as scripts for various procedures.

EMDR, adaptive information processing, and case conceptualization. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 1, 68-87.

Overview of EMDR treatment based upon an Adaptive Information Processing case conceptualization.  Early life experiences are viewed as the basis of pathology and used as targets for processing.  The three-pronged protocol includes processing of the past events that have set the foundation for the pathology, the current triggers, and templates for appropriate future functioning to address skill and developmental deficits.

EMDR and the Adaptive Information Processing Model: Integrative Treatment and Case Conceptualization. Clinical Social Work Journal, 39(2), 191-200.

The adaptive information processing model, which guides the practice of EMDR, encourages therapists to consider the complete clinical picture. This includes addressing past experiences that contribute to a client's present difficulties, identifying current triggers for maladaptive responses, and cultivating more adaptive neural networks of memory to foster positive responses in the future.

EMDR therapy: An overview of current and future research. European Review of Applied Psychology, 62, 193-195.

Research findings indicate that EMDR therapy and TF-CBT are based on different mechanisms of action in that EMDR therapy does not necessitate daily homework, sustained arousal or detailed descriptions of the event, and appears to take fewer sessions. EMDR is guided by the adaptive information processing model, which posits a wide range of adverse life experiences as the basis of pathology.

The role of eye movement desensitization & reprocessing (EMDR) therapy in medicine: Addressing the psychological and physical symptoms stemming from adverse life experiences. The Permanente Journal, 18, 71-77.

An overview of the substantial body of research demonstrating that adverse life experiences contribute to both psychological and biomedical pathology, as well as the research demonstrating the clinical effects of EMDR therapy as guided by the Adaptive Information Processing model.

Handbook of EMDR and Family Therapy Processes. New York: Wiley.

Using an Adaptive Information Processing conceptualization a wide range of family problems and impasses can be addressed through the integration of EMDR and family therapy techniques.  Family therapy models are also useful for identifying the targets in need of processing for those engaged in individual therapy.

EMDR and the Adaptive Information Processing Model: Integrative Treatment and Case Conceptualization. Clinical Social Work Journal, 39(2), 191-200.

The EMDR practice, guided by the adaptive information processing model, encourages therapists to consider the comprehensive clinical picture. This encompasses past experiences that contribute to a client's current challenges, present events that trigger maladaptive responses, and the development of more adaptive neural networks of memory. The goal is to enhance positive responses in the future.

The prevalence and effect of life Events in 222 bipolar I and II patients: A prospective, naturalistic 4 year follow-up study. Journal of Affective Disorders.

Our data suggest a high and continuous number of life events prior to affective episodes. Life events after the index episode worsened the course of bipolar I patients with more depressive episodes. This underlines the importance of detection and treatment of emerging life events.

EMDR and the adaptive information processing model: Potential mechanisms of change. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 2, 315-325.

This article provides a brief overview of some of the major precepts of the Adaptive Information Processing model, a comparison and contrast to extinction-based information processing models and treatment and a discussion of a variety of mechanisms of action.

Hurtful words: Association of exposure to peer verbal abuse with elevated psychiatric symptom scores and corpus callosum abnormalities. Am J Psychiatry, 167, 1464 - 1471.

These findings parallel re­sults of previous reports of psychopathol­ogy associated with childhood exposure to parental verbal abuse and support the hypothesis that exposure to peer verbal abuse is an aversive stimulus associated with greater symptom ratings and mean­ingful alterations in brain structure.

The effect of EMDR therapy on the negative information processing on patients who suffer depression. Revista Electrónica de Motivación y Emoción (REME), 9, 23-24.

The study evaluated the impact of EMDR treatment on bias mechanisms in depressed subjects in regard to negative emotional valence evaluation. “The results indicated that it generated important cognitive emotional changes in such mechanisms.”  Priming tests indicated changes in the negative valence evaluation of emotional information indicative of recovery with decreased reaction times in the neutral and positive stimuli processing.”

Treating trauma in psychosis with EMDR: A pilot study. Journal of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 43, 664-671.

This pilot study shows that a short EMDR therapy is effective and safe in the treatment of PTSD in subjects with a psychotic disorder. Treatment of PTSD has a positive effect on auditory verbal hallucinations, delusions, anxiety symptoms, depression symptoms, and self-esteem.

Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: A meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 38 (4), 661-671.

These findings indicate that childhood adversity is strongly associated with increased risk for psychosis.

NEUROBIOLOGY OF EYE MOVEMENT DESENSITIZATION AND REPROCESSING. Activitas Nervosa Superior, 51(3), 98-102.

The empirical findings support the impact of BLS (Bilateral Stimulation) on the autonomic nervous system, promoting a shift towards parasympathetic activation and reducing arousal. Additionally, BLS has been shown to decrease the subjectively perceived vividness and emotional burden of autobiographical memories.

Change in adult attachment status following treatment with EMDR: Three case studies.  Journal of EMDR Practice and Research3, 178-191.

Subsequent to EMDR treatment “all three patients made positive changes in attachment status as measured by the [Adult Attachment Inventory], and all three reported positive changes in emotions and relationships.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) as a treatment for phantom limb pain. Journal of Brief Therapy, 5, 31-44.

Five consecutive cases of phantom limb pain were treated with EMDR. Four of the five clients completed the prescribed treatment and reported that pain was completely eliminated, or reduced to a negligible level. . . The standard EMDR treatment protocol was used to target the accident that caused the amputation, and other related events.

Electroencephalography Coherence, Memory Vividness, and Emotional Valence Effects of Bilateral Eye Movements During Unpleasant Memory Recall and Subsequent Free Association: Implications for Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 9(2), 78-97.

The results showed a trend of increased Beta interhemispheric coherence following BEMs (Bilateral Eye Movements). However, statistically significant increases were observed in Right Frontal Theta and Beta intrahemispheric coherences after BEMs. Similar trends were also observed for Left Frontal Theta and Beta, as well as Right Frontal Gamma. Cortical electrode maps were provided to illustrate these effects on Beta coherence. Ratings of imagery vividness and emotional valence were collected after each set of eye movements, along with free associations, and demonstrated a significant decrease across all conditions.

Memory Editing with Emphasizing the Role of EM in EMDR. International Clinical Neuroscience Journal, 2(2), 66-70.

A series of systematic experiments have demonstrated that spontaneous eye movements are associated with emotional and memory changes, leading to decreased arousal, increased attentional flexibility, improved memory processing, and enhanced semantic recall. Research has placed emphasis on the effectiveness of EMDR in facilitating changes in memory and promoting memory reprocessing.

Mechanism of Action

EMDR contains many procedures and elements that contribute to treatment effects.  While the methodology used in EMDR has been extensively validated (see above), questions still remain regarding mechanism of action. However, since EMDR achieves clinical effects without the need for homework, or the prolonged focus used in exposure therapies, attention has been paid to the possible neurobiological processes that might be evoked. Although the eye movements (and other dual attention stimulation) comprise one only one procedural element, this element has come under greatest scrutiny.

Randomized controlled studies evaluating mechanism of action of the eye movement component follow this section.

The impact of eye movements and tones on disturbing memories of patients with PTSD and other mental disorders. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 44, 447–483.

The findings provide further evidence for the value of employing eye movements in EMDR treatments. The results also support the notion that EMDR is a suitable option for resolving disturbing memories underlying a broader range of mental health problems than PTSD alone.

Attentional bias in post-traumatic stress disorder diminishes after symptom amelioration. Behaviour Research and Therapy 49, 796-801.

Attentional bias toward aversive cues in PTSD has been hypothesized as being part of the dysfunction causing etiology and maintenance of PTSD. The aim of the present study was to investigate the cognitive strategy underlying attentional bias in PTSD and whether normal cognitive processing is restored after a treatment suppressing core PTSD symptoms.” An average of 4.1 EMDR sessions resulted in remission of PTSD. Post treatment “similarly to controls, EMDR treated patients who were symptom free had null e-Stroop and disengagement indices.

Physiological correlates of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 622-634.

Changes in heart rate, skin conductance and LF/HF-ratio, finger temperature, breathing frequency, carbon dioxide and oxygen levels were documented during the eye movement condition.  It was concluded the “eye movements during EMDR activate cholinergic and inhibit sympathetic systems. The reactivity has similarities with the pattern during REM sleep.”

What Is EMDR?: Commentary by Greenwald and Invited Response by Shapiro. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 4(4), 170-179.

At least one professional association focused on EMDR has defined eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) as inherently linked to Shapiro's (2001) eight-phase protocol and adaptive information processing (AIP) model.

Emotionality of loss-related memories is reduced after recall plus eye movements but not after recall plus music or recall only. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 4, 106-112.

Recall-plus-music was added to investigate whether reductions in emotionality are associated with relaxation. . . Participants reported a greater decline in emotionality and concentration after eye movements in comparison to recall-only and recall-with-music. It is concluded that eye movements are effective when negative memories pertain to loss and grief.

EMDR Effects on Pursuit Eye Movements. PLoS ONE 5(5): e10762. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010762

EMDR treatment of autobiographic worries causing moderate distress resulted in an “increase in the smoothness of pursuit [which] presumably reflects an improvement in the use of visual attention needed to follow the target accurately. Perhaps EMDR reduces distress thereby activating a cholinergic effect known to improve ocular pursuit.

A comparison of visual versus auditory concurrent tasks on reducing the distress and vividness of aversive autobiographical memories. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 5, 34-41.

Results showed that vividness and emotionality ratings of the memory decreased significantly after eye movement and counting, and that eye movement produced the greatest benefit. Furthermore, eye movement facilitated greater decrease in vividness irrespective of the modality of the memory. Although this is not consistent with the hypothesis from a working memory model of mode-specific effects, it is consistent with a central executive explanation.

The active ingredient in EMDR: Is it traditional exposure or dual focus of attention? Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 13, 97-107

This study tested whether the content of participants’ responses during EMDR is similar to that thought to be effective for traditional exposure treatments (reliving), or is more consistent with distancing which would be expected given Shapiro’s proposal of dual focus of attention. Greatest improvement on a measure of PTSD symptoms occurred when the participant processed the trauma in a more detached manner, which indicates the underlying mechanisms of EMDR and exposure therapy are different.

How eye movements in EMDR work: changes in memory vividness and emotionality.
Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry, 45 (3), 
396-401.

This study provides corroborating evidence that EM during recall causes reductions in memory vividness and emotionality at a delayed post-test and that the magnitude of these effects is related to intervention duration.

Visuospatial working memory interference with recollections of trauma. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48, 309–321.

Tested patients awaiting PTSD treatment and demonstrated that the eye movement condition had a significant effect on vividness of trauma memory and emotionality compared to counting and exposure only.  In addition, “the counting task had no effect on vividness compared to exposure only, suggesting that the eye-movement task had a specific effect rather than serving as a general distractor” (p. 317).

Eye movement desensitization treatment utilizes the positive visceral element of the investigatory reflex to inhibit the memories of post-traumatic stress disorder: A theoretical analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 571–579.

One of a variety of articles positing an orienting response as a contributing element (see Shapiro, 2001 for comprehensive examination of theories and suggested research parameters).  This theory has received controlled research support (Barrowcliff et al., 2003, 2004).

EMDR interventions in addiction. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 11(1), 3–29.

This article explores two different approaches within EMDR therapy: trauma-focused and addiction-focused. It provides a critical review of the existing adapted EMDR protocols and research related to both approaches. However, despite extensive development and research spanning two decades, there is a notable gap in the investigation of the feasibility and effectiveness of addiction-focused EMDR therapy. The article also delves into the intriguing possibilities presented by research on working memory theory.

Considering Mechanisms of Action in EMDR. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, Suppl.Special Issue on Possible EMDR Mechanisms of Action, 2(4), 234-238.

EMDR follows a structured eight-phase protocol, where the client concentrates on different aspects of a distressing memory for approximately 24 seconds while concurrently engaging in a dual attention task (EM) or receiving bilateral auditory or tactile stimulation (BLS). Following each set, the client is prompted to share any thoughts or experiences that arise, which then becomes the focus for the subsequent set of EM/BLS.

Effect of bilateral eye movements on frontal interhemispheric gamma EEG coherence: Implications for EMDR therapy. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195, 785-788.

Specifically, the EM manipulation used in the present study, reported previously to facilitate episodic memory, resulted in decreased interhemispheric EEG coherence in anterior prefrontal cortex. Because the gamma band includes the 40 Hz wave that may indicate the active binding of information during the consolidation of long-term memory storage (e.g., Cahn and Polich, 2006), it is particularly notable that the changes in coherence we found are in this band. With regard to PTSD symptoms, it may be that by changing interhemispheric coherence in frontal areas, the EMs used in EMDR foster consolidation of traumatic memories, thereby decreasing the memory intrusions found in this disorder.

Is EMDR an exposure therapy? A review of trauma protocols. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 43-59.

Theoretical, clinical, and procedural differences referencing two decades of CBT and EMDR research.

A single session, controlled group study of flooding and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in treating posttraumatic stress disorder among Vietnam war veterans: Preliminary data. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13, 119–130.

This study was designed as primarily a process report to compare EMDR and exposure therapy.  A different recovery pattern was observed with the EMDR group demonstrating a more rapid decline in self-reported distress.

Psychophysiological changes during EMDR and treatment outcomeJournal of EMDR Practice and Research, 2, 239-246

During-session changes in autonomic tone were investigated in 10 patients suffering from single-trauma PTSD.  Results indicate that information processing during EMDR is followed by during-session decrease in psychophysiological activity, reduced subjective disturbance and reduced stress reactivity to traumatic memory.

Alterations in autonomic tone during trauma exposure using eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) – results of a preliminary investigation. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 1264-1271.

The psycho-physiological correlates of EMDR were investigated during treatment sessions of trauma patients.  The initiation of the eye movements sets resulted in immediate changes that indicated a pronounced de-arousal.

EMDR for PTSD: A pilot blinded, randomized study of stimulation type. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics. 75, 290-297.

Twenty-one patients with single-event PTSD (average IES: 49.5) received three consecutive sessions of EMDR with three different types of auditory and kinesthetic stimulation.  All were clinically useful.  However, alternating stimulation appeared to confer an additional benefit to the EMDR procedure.

EMDR: A putative neurobiological mechanism of action. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 61-75.

Sleep-dependent memory processing and EMDR action. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 2, 289-299.

Comprehensive explanations of mechanisms and the potential links to the processes that occur in REM sleep.  Controlled studies have evaluated these theories (see next section; Christman et al., 2003; Kuiken et al. 2001-2002).

Memory reconsolidation and extinction have distinct temporal and biochemical signatures. Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 4787– 4795.

The article explores the differences between memory reconsolidation and extinction. This new area of investigation is worthy of additional attention.  Reconsolidation may prove to be the underlying mechanism of EMDR, as opposed to extinction caused by prolonged exposure therapies. “Memory reconsolidation after retrieval may be used to update or integrate new information into long-term memories . . . Brief exposure … seems to trigger a second wave of memory consolidation (reconsolidation), whereas prolonged exposure . . leads to the formation of a new memory that competes with the original memory (extinction).”

EMDR: Tones inferior to eye movements in the EMDR treatment of PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50, 275-79.

EMs outperformed tones while it remained unclear if tones add to recall only. . . EMs were superior to tones in reducing the emotionality and vividness of trauma memories. [I]n contrast to EMs, tones hardly tax working memory and induce a smaller reduction in emotionality and vividness of aversive memories. Interestingly, patients’ preferences did not follow this pattern: the perceived effectiveness was higher for tones than for EMs. . . . Clearly, the superior effects of EMs on emotionality and vividness of trauma memories were not due to demand characteristics.

Blurring emotional memories using eye movements: Individual differences and speed of eye movements. European Journal of Psychotraumatology7.

Contrary to the theory, the data do not support the hypothesis that EM speed should be adjusted to [working memory capacity] (hypothesis 4). However, the data show that a dual task in general is more effective in reducing memory ratings than no dual task (hypothesis 1), and that a more cognitively demanding dual task increases the intervention’s effectiveness (hypothesis 2).

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Effectiveness and autonomic correlates. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 27, 219–229.

Study involving biofeedback equipment has supported the hypothesis that the parasympathetic system is activated by finding that eye movements appeared to cause a compelled relaxation response. More rigorous research with trauma populations is needed.

Randomized Studies of Hypotheses
Regarding Eye Movements

Numerous memory researchers have evaluated the eye movements used in EMDR therapy. A recent meta-analysis of the eye movement research has reported positive effects (Lee & Cuijpers, 2013) in both clinical and laboratory trials (see above). It is hypothesized that a number of mechanisms interact synergistically. The following studies have tested specific hypotheses regarding mechanism of action and found a direct effect on emotional arousal, imagery vividness, attentional flexibility, retrieval, distancing and memory association.

Eye-movements and visual imagery: A working memory approach to the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36, 209-223.

Tested the working memory theory. Eye movements were superior to control conditions in reducing image vividness and emotionality.

Eye-movements reduce the vividness, emotional valence and electrodermal arousal associated with negative autobiographical memories. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 15, 325-345.

Tested the reassurance reflex model. Eye movements were superior to control conditions in reducing image vividness and emotionality.

Horizontal rhythmical eye-movements consistently diminish the arousal  provoked  by auditory stimuli.  British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 289-302.

Tested the reassurance reflex model. Eye movements were superior to control conditions in reducing arousal provoked by auditory stimuli.

Bilateral eye movements enhance the retrieval of episodic memories. Neuropsychology. 17, 221-229.

Tested cortical activation theories.  Results provide indirect support for the orienting response/REM theories suggested by Stickgold (2002, 2008).  Saccadic eye movements, but not tracking eye movements were superior to control conditions in episodic retrieval.

Increased interhemispheric interaction is associated with earlier offset of childhood amnesia. Neuropsychology, 20, 336.

The results of the current Experiment 2 suggest that the eye movements employed in EMDR may induce a neurobiological change in interhemispheric interaction and an attendant psychological change in episodic retrieval.

The impact of eye movements and tones on disturbing memories of patients with PTSD and other mental disorders. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 44, 447–483.

The findings provide further evidence for the value of employing eye movements in EMDR treatments. The results also support the notion that EMDR is a suitable option for resolving disturbing memories underlying a broader range of mental health problems than PTSD alone.

Eye movements reduce vividness and emotionality of ‘‘flashforwards.’’ Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 442–447.

This study examined whether eye movements reduce vividness and emotionality of visual distressing images about feared future events. . . Relative to the no-dual task condition, eye movements while thinking of future-oriented images resulted in decreased ratings of image vividness and emotional intensity.

The impact of taxing working memory on negative and positive memories. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 1: 5623 - DOI: 10.3402/ejpt.v1i0.5623

Additional investigation of eye movements compared to Tetris from a working memory perspective.

Reducing vividness and emotional intensity of recurrent “flashforwards” by taxing working memory: An analogue study. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 25, 599–603.

Results showed that vividness of intrusive images was lower after recall with eye movement, relative to recall only, and there was a similar trend for emotionality.

How eye movements affect unpleasant memories: Support for a working-memory account.  Behaviour Research and Therapy 46, 913– 931.

Three studies were done with cumulatively support a working-memory account of the eye movement benefits in which the central executive is taxed when a person performs a distractor task while attempting to hold a memory in mind.

EMDR Works . . . But How? Recent Progress in the Search for Treatment Mechanisms. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 3(3), 161-168.

EMDR aims to alleviate symptoms and facilitate the reprocessing of memories by various mechanisms, such as disrupting traumatic recollections in working memory, promoting a greater psychological distance from the trauma, improving communication between brain hemispheres, and inducing psychophysiological changes associated with relaxation or a brain state similar to rapid-eye-movement sleep.

Negative mental imagery in public speaking anxiety: Forming cognitive resistance by taxing visuospatial working memory. Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry50, 77-82.

As hypothesised, representative imagery was established and reduced in vividness more effectively by the eye movement task than the auditory task. The public speaking scenario was then visualised less vividly and generated less anxiety when imagined after performing the eye movement task than after the auditory task.

Effects of visuospatial tasks on desensitization to emotive memories. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 267-280.

Tested the working memory theory. Eye movements were superior to control conditions in reducing within-session image vividness and emotionality.  There was no difference one-week post.

Psychophysiological responsivity to script-driven imagery: An exploratory study of the effects of eye movements on public speaking flashforwards. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 6, doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00115.

Relative to the control condition (imagery only), those who made eye movements whilst holding a mental image of this scenario in-mind demonstrated a significant decrease in heart rate, which acted as a measure of emotionality.

Blurring emotional memories using eye movements: individual differences and speed of eye movements. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 7(1)

The findings contradict the theory and do not provide support for the hypothesis that the speed of eye movements should be adjusted based on working memory capacity (hypothesis 4). However, the data demonstrate that the presence of a dual task, in general, is more effective in reducing memory ratings compared to no dual task (hypothesis 1), and that a dual task that is more cognitively demanding enhances the effectiveness of the intervention (hypothesis 2).

Eye movement desensitization reprocessing facilitates attentional orienting. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 21, (1), 3-20.

Tested the orienting response theory related to REM-type mechanisms.  Indicated that the eye movement condition was correlated with increased attentional flexibility. Eye movements were superior to control conditions.

Bilateral eye movements, attentional flexibility and metaphor comprehension: The substrate of REM dreaming? Dreaming, 20, 227–247.

This study adds additional support to the orienting response theory related to REM-type mechanisms.  Evaluations of participants experiencing significant loss or trauma demonstrate differential effects in a comparison of eye movement and non-eye movement conditions.

Effects of eye movement versus therapist instructions on the processing of distressing memories. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 801-808.

There was no significant effect of therapist’s instruction on the outcome measures. There was a significant reduction in distress for eye movement at post-treatment and at follow-up.

. .  . The results were consistent with other evidence that the mechanism of change in EMDR is not the same as traditional exposure.

A working memory explanation for the effects of eye movements in EMDR. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 2, 247-261.

In two experiments participants focused on negative memories while engaging in three dual-attention eye movement tasks of increasing complexity.  Results support a working memory explanation for the effects of eye movement dual-attention tasks on autobiographical memory.

Bilateral saccadic eye movements and tactile stimulation, but not auditory stimulation, enhance memory retrieval. Brain and Cognition81, 52-56.

Increased memory retrieval in two experiments support “the possibility that alternating bilateral activation of the left and right hemispheres exerts its effects on memory by increasing the functional connectivity between the two hemispheres.

Reduced misinformation effects following saccadic bilateral eye movements. Brain and Cognition, 69, 89-97.

Bilateral saccadic eye movements were compared to vertical and no eye movements. “It was found that bilateral eye movements increased true memory for the event, increased recollection, and decreased the magnitude of the misinformation effect.”  This study supports hypotheses regarding effects of interhemispheric activation and episodic memory.

Effects of bilateral eye movements on gist based false recognition in the DRM paradigm. Brain and Cognition, 63, 221-225.

Bilateral saccadic eye movements were compared to vertical and no eye movements.  Those in the bilateral eye movement condition “were more likely to recognise previously presented words and less likely to falsely recognize critical non-studies associates.”

Effects of bilateral eye movement on retrieval of item, associative and contextual information. Neuropsychology, 22, 136-145.

The effects of saccadic bilateral eye movement were compared to vertical eye movements and no eye movements on the retrieval of item, associative and contextual information.  Saccadic eye movements were superior on all parameters in all conditions.

A comparison of dual attention, eye movements, and exposure only during eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for posttraumatic stress disorder: Results from a randomized clinical trial. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics85(6), 357-365.

Bilateral eye movements were compared to eye fixation and an exposure control. Both eye conditions were equally effective and superior to exposure alone at posttest. 

Do horizontal saccadic eye movements increase interhemispheric coherence? Investigation of a hypothesized neural mechanism underlying EMDR. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2, 4. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2011.00004.

The study demonstrated that 30 seconds of bilateral saccadic EMs enhanced the episodic retrieval of non-traumatic emotional stimuli in healthy adults.  There was no evidence for an increase in interhemispheric coherence.  However, a number of caveats regarding interpretation are noted

The efficacy and psychophysiological correlates of dual-attention tasks in eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 1-11.

EMDR-with eye movements led to greater reduction in distress than EMDR-without eye movements. Heart rate decreased significantly when eye movements began; skin conductance decreased during eye movement sets; heart rate variability and respiration rate increased significantly as eye movements continued; and orienting responses were more frequent in the eye movement than no-eye movement condition at the start of exposure.

EMDR for PTSD: A pilot blinded, randomized study of stimulation type. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics. 75, 290-297.

Twenty-one patients with single-event PTSD (average IES: 49.5) received three consecutive sessions of EMDR with three different types of auditory and kinesthetic stimulation.  All were clinically useful.  However, alternating stimulation appeared to confer an additional benefit to the EMDR procedure.

Comparative efficacy of EMDR and alternative procedures in reducing the vividness of mental images. Scandinavian Journal of Behaviour Therapy, 25, 37-42.

Eye movements were superior to control conditions in reducing image vividness.

Time-course of eye movement-related decrease in vividness and emotionality of unpleasant autobiographical memories. Memory20, 346-357.

Results revealed a significant drop [in eyes moving condition] compared to the [eyes stationary] group in emotionality after 74 seconds compared to a significant drop in vividness at only 2 seconds into the intervention. These results support that emotionality becomes reduced only after vividness has dropped.

Autobiographical memories become less vivid and emotional after eye movements. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 121-130.

Tested their theory that eye movements change the somatic perceptions accompanying retrieval, leading to decreased affect, and therefore decreasing vividness. Eye movements were superior to control conditions in reducing image vividness. Unlike control conditions, eye movements also decreased emotionality.

EMDR: Eye movements superior to beeps in taxing working memory and reducing vividness of recollections. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49, 92-98.

Vividness of negative memories was reduced after both beeps and eye movements, but effects were larger for eye movements.  Findings support a working memory account of EMDR and suggest that effects of beeps on negative memories are inferior to those of eye movements.

Tones inferior to eye movements in the EMDR treatment of PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50, 275-279.

Ems outperformed tones while it remained unclear if tones add to recall only.

Speed matters: relationship between speed of eye movements and modification of aversive autobiographical memories. Frontiers in psychiatry6, 45.

Although predicted by the working memory hypothesis that highly vivid images are more affected by fast EM and less vivid images are more affected by slower EM. . . Crucially, image vividness did not interact with condition on the decrease of emotionality over time, which was inconsistent with the prediction.

Additional Psychophysiological and Neurobiological Evaluations of EMDR Treatment

All psychophysiological studies have indicated significant de-arousal. All neurobiological studies have indicated significant effects, including changes in cortical, and limbic activation patterns, and increase in hippocampal volume.

Evidence of a decrease in heart rate and skin conductance responses in PTSD patients after a single EMDR session. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 2, 51-56.

EMDR's Neurobiological Mechanisms of Action: A Survey of 20 Years of Searching. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 4(1), 22-42.

Morphovolumetric changes after EMDR treatment in drug-naïve PTSD patients. Rivista di Psichiatria52(1), 24-31.

Neuroanatomical changes after EMDR in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 19, 457-458.

EMDR treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder, with focus on hippocampal volumes: A pilot study. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 23, E1-2. doi:10.1176/appi. neuropsych.23.2.E1.

 Changes in psychological symptoms and heart rate variability during EMDR treatment: A case series of subthreshold PTSD. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 4, 3-11.

Electrophysiological changes during EMDR treatment in patients with combat-related PTSD. Annals of General Psychiatry 9 (Suppl 1) :S209.

On the neural basis of EMDR therapy: Insights from qeeg studies. Traumatology15, 81-95.

Facilitating access to emotions: Neural signature of EMDR stimulation. PloS one9(8), e106350.

QEEG analysis of treating PTSD and bulimia nervosa using EMDR. Journal of Neurotherapy, 9(Part 4), 114-115.

Event-related potentials and EMDR treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuroscience Research, 49, 267-272.

EMDR therapy modulates the default mode network in a subsyndromal, traumatized bipolar patient. Neuropsychobiology, 67, 181-184.

High resolution brain SPECT imaging and EMDR in police officers with PTSD. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 17, 526-532.

What psychological testing and neuroimaging tell us about the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) by eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13, 159-172.

Gray matter density in limbic and paralimbic cortices is associated with trauma load and EMDR outcome in PTSD patients. Journal of Psychiatric Research. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.10.014

Changes in the regional cerebral perfusion after Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing: A SPECT study of two cases. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 1, 24-30.

Hemodynamic responses of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuroscience Research, 65, 375–383.

Effects of EMDR psychotherapy on 99mTc-HMPAO distribution in occupation-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Nuclear Medicine Communications, 28, 757–765.

Pretreatment, intratreatment, and posttreatment EEG imaging of EMDR: Methodology and preliminary results from a single case. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 5,42-56.

Neurobiological correlates of EMDR monitoring – An EEG study. PLoS ONE, 7(9) e45753 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045753.

Effect of bilateral eye movements on frontal interhemispheric gamma EEG coherence: Implications for EMDR therapy. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195, 785-788.

A single-case fMRI study EMDR treatment of a patient with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 3,10-23.

Assessment of psychophysiological stress reactions during a traumatic reminder in patients treated with EMDR. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 1, 15-23.

Psychophysiological regulation in patients suffering from PTSD: Changes after EMDR treatment. Journal of Psychotraumatology and Psychological Medicine, 1, 47 -57. (German)

The psychobiology of traumatic memory: Clinical implications of neuroimaging studies. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 821, 99-113.

NEUROBIOLOGY OF EYE MOVEMENT DESENSITIZATION AND REPROCESSING. Activitas Nervosa Superior, 51(3), 98-102.

Treatment of Military Personnel

As noted in the WHO (2013) guidelines and the American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines (2004, p.18), in EMDR therapy “traumatic material need not be verbalized; instead, patients are directed to think about their traumatic experiences without having to discuss them.”  Given the reluctance of many combat veterans to divulge the details of their experience, this factor is relevant to willingness to initiate treatment, retention and therapeutic gains.  It may be one of the factors responsible for the lower remission and higher dropout rate noted in this population when CBT techniques are used.

As described previously, an RCT by Carlson et al. (1998) reported that after twelve EMDR treatment sessions, 77.7% of the combat veterans no longer met criteria for PTSD.  There were no dropouts and effects were maintained at 3- and 9-month follow-up.  In addition, the Silver et al., (1995) analysis of an inpatient veterans’ PTSD program (n = 100) found EMDR to be superior to biofeedback and relaxation training on seven of eight measures. Russell et al. (2007) evaluated 72 active-duty military personnel, 48 diagnosed with combat PTSD and reported that pre-post changes were significant on all measures. A recent program evaluation of active duty military by McLay et al. (2016) compared various forms of treatment and reported, “Results indicated that patients receiving EMDR had significantly fewer therapy sessions over 10 weeks but had significantly greater gains in their PCL–M scores than did individuals not receiving EMDR.”

All other RCT of veterans have used insufficient treatment doses to assess PTSD outcomes (e.g., two sessions; see ISTSS, 2000; DVA/DoD, 2004). Sufficient treatment time must be used for multiply traumatized veterans (e.g., see below: Russell et al., 2007). However, in a process analysis, Rogers et al. (1999) compared one session of EMDR and exposure therapy with inpatient veterans, and a different recovery pattern was observed. The EMDR group demonstrated a more rapid decline in self-reported distress (e.g., SUD levels decreased with EMDR and increased with exposure).

As stated in the American Psychiatric Practice Guidelines (2004, p. 36), if viewed as an exposure therapy, “EMDR employs techniques that may give the patient more control over the exposure experience (since EMDR is less reliant on a verbal account) and provides techniques to regulate anxiety in the apprehensive circumstance of exposure treatment. Consequently, it may prove advantageous for patients who cannot tolerate prolonged exposure as well as for patients who have difficulty verbalizing their traumatic experiences. Comparisons of EMDR with other treatments in larger samples are needed to clarify such differences.”

Such research is highly recommended.  In addition, since EMDR utilizes no homework to achieve its effects it may be particularly suited for front line alleviation of symptoms (see Russell, 2006; Wesson & Gould, 2009).  Further, the prevalent somatic and chronic pain problems experienced by combat veterans indicate the need for additional research based upon the reports of Russell (2008), Schneider et al., (2007, 2008) and Wilensky (2007), which demonstrate EMDR’s capacity to successfully treat phantom limb pain (see also Ray & Zbik, 2001).  The ability of EMDR to simultaneously address PTSD, depression, and pain can have distinct benefits for DVA/DoD treatment.

The following contain clinically relevant information for the treatment of veterans, including therapy parameters.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): Treatment for combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 3-24.

Comparative case study of diffusion of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in two clinical settings: Empirically supported treatment status is not enough.  Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40, 518–524.

EMDR and emotionally focused couple therapy for war veteran couples. In F. Shapiro, F. Kaslow, & L. Maxfield (Eds.)  Handbook of EMDR and family therapy processes. New York: Wiley

Effective Treatment of Veterans With PTSD: Comparison Between Intensive Daily and Weekly EMDR Approaches. Frontiers in Psychology, 24 August 2018.

EMDR and psychotherapy integration. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Outcomes from eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in active-duty service members with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tra0000120.

Treating combat-related stress disorders: A multiple case study utilizing eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) with battlefield casualties from the Iraqi war. Military Psychology, 18, 1-18.

Treating traumatic amputation-related phantom limb pain:  A case study utilizing eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) within the armed services. Clinical Case Studies, 7, 136-153.

War-related medically unexplained symptoms, prevalence, and treatment: utilizing EMDR within the armed services. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 2, 212-226.

Scientific resistance to research, training and utilization of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy in treating post-war disorders Social Science & Medicine67, 1737–1746.

Treating traumatic stress injuries in military personnel: An EMDR practitioner's guide. New York: Routledge.

Training needs for the treatment of combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Traumatology, 13, 4-10.

Responding to an identified need: A joint Department of Defense-Department of Veterans Affairs training program in eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) for clinicians providing trauma services. International Journal of Stress Management, 14, 61-71.

Light in the heart of darkness: EMDR and the treatment of war and terrorism survivors. New York: Norton.

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in the treatment of war veterans. Journal of Clinical Psychology: In Session, 64, 947—957.

Intervening early with EMDR on military operations: A case study. Journal of EMDR Practice and Research, 3, 91-97.